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The Effectiveness of the NFL’s Rooney Rule The Effectiveness of the NFL’s Rooney Rule
Matthew Welker
St. John Fisher University
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The Effectiveness of the NFL’s Rooney Rule The Effectiveness of the NFL’s Rooney Rule
Abstract Abstract
The Rooney Rule in the NFL was created in order to create an atmosphere of racial equality and fairness
when relating to hiring practices. The general consensus on the Rooney Rule is that it has been
successful so far, but there is still a lot to do in order to counteract racial bias when it comes to hiring
employees. After nine years of validation, it is still yet to be seen if the Rooney Rule has made changes to
the NFL. This research explores the positions of Offensive Coordinator, Defensive Coordinator, and
General Manager in all 32 NFL franchises to determine if the implementation of the Rooney Rule has
impacted the racial diversity of those holding the positions. The effectiveness of the Rooney Rule can is
measured by not only the impact that the rule has had on positions that require an interview for minority
candidates, but also the “trickledown” effect for those positions that do not require a minority candidate
interview for a vacancy. Aspects of racism, reverse racism, and Title VII are used to contextualize the
Bndings. Of the positions that were analyzed, only General Manager showed a signiBcant increase in
minority held positions.
Document Type Document Type
Undergraduate Project
Professor's Name Professor's Name
Emily Dane-Staples
Subject Categories Subject Categories
Sports Management
This undergraduate project is available at Fisher Digital Publications: https://Bsherpub.sjf.edu/sport_undergrad/25
Running Head: The National Football League’s Rooney Rule
The Effectiveness of the NFL’s Rooney Rule
Matthew Welker
St. John Fisher College
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THE NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE’S ROONEY RULE
Abstract
The Rooney Rule in the NFL was created in order to create an atmosphere of racial equality and
fairness when relating to hiring practices. The general consensus on the Rooney Rule is that it has been
successful so far, but there is still a lot to do in order to counteract racial bias when it comes to hiring
employees. After nine years of validation, it is still yet to be seen if the Rooney Rule has made changes
to the NFL. This research explores the positions of Offensive Coordinator, Defensive Coordinator, and
General Manager in all 32 NFL franchises to determine if the implementation of the Rooney Rule has
impacted the racial diversity of those holding the positions. The effectiveness of the Rooney Rule can is
measured by not only the impact that the rule has had on positions that require an interview for
minority candidates, but also the “trickledown” effect for those positions that do not require a minority
candidate interview for a vacancy. Aspects of racism, reverse racism, and Title VII are used to
contextualize the findings. Of the positions that were analyzed, only General Manager showed a
significant increase in minority held positions.
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THE NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE’S ROONEY RULE
The Effectiveness of the NFL’s Rooney Rule
In 1947, Jackie Robinson of the Brooklyn Dodgers broke the color barrier or Major League
Baseball becoming the first African American athlete to play at the highest level of professional baseball
in the United States in the modern era (Collins, 2007). Since that day, the world of sport has been a
stage for the struggle for equality between races in America’s work place (Collins, 2007). In the years
since the integration of minority athletes onto the playing field of professional sport leagues, minority
coaches and front office positions have slowly been filled by minority candidates (Madden, 2004). While
leagues have made some progress towards integrating minority coaches and front office personnel in
major professional sporting leagues, it is the opinion of many that there is still a long way to go (Goff &
Tollison, 2009). One of the most controversial initiatives instated to promote the equality and
advancement of minority candidates being considered for head coaching and football operations
positions in the National Football League was the Rooney Rule (Collins, 2007).
Since the inception of the Rooney Rule in 2002, some experts say that the initiative has vastly
improved the interview and hiring practices of the NFL (Madden & Ruther, 2010). Other parties however
feel that the Rooney rule is a form of reverse racism and “tokenism”, where the minority candidates are
actually suffering from getting an interview for a position that they have no chance of obtaining
(Maravent, 2006). This leads to the debate of whether or not the Rooney Rule has made advancements
in the field of minority hiring, or if in fact there are some affirmative action consequences that arise by
forcing NFL franchises to interview a minority candidate. This can also bring up the issue of whether or
not the Rooney Rule has had a positive impact on the NFL since its inception in 2002 and what is the
reason for the resulted consequence. Another result may indicate whether or not the Rooney Rule has
any affirmative action implications in the form of reverse racism. Last, why is the NFL so slow in
advancing in the field of minority hiring, when leagues like the NBA and MLB have made massive strides
without any sort of forcing hiring practices (Kahn, 2004)?
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Literature Review
The idea of racial equality in hiring practices of the NFL is an extremely important aspect of the
way that the league not only runs, but also promotes itself as a global entity. The NFL has built itself as a
global business with earning upwards of $9 billion in revenue for the 2010 season. The way that the
league presents itself not only to its consumers is extremely essential, but also the protection from class
action law suits relating to affirmative action and minority discrimination is a huge issue (Collins, 2007).
While other leagues have made strides in the field of minority hiring and equality, the NFL is still behind,
in terms of percentages of minority head coaches and front office positions compared to other sports
(Kahn, 2006). So in order to determine if NFL is on the right track to achieving a more diverse it is
necessary to investigate the leagues initial diversity policy to see if it is effective. On the other hand, it is
important to see if there are any sort of underlying affirmative action issues that may arise from teams
holding interviews for minorities just to fill a quota, even if there is not actual intention of ever hiring the
candidate (Goff & Tollison, 2009). Lastly, it is required to see if there are reasons that minority coaches
are not hired while their white equals continue to be hired and retained at an overwhelming rate.
In 2004, a Lawrence Kahn study examined the retention factors of NBA coaches between 1996
and 2003. He looked at different factors such as record, race, pay, performance, and community value
(Kahn, 2004). Kahn determined that there was very small statistical proof that differentiated race when
determining retention of any coach. There have been studies, such as those done by Madden, that have
indicated that minority coaches in the NFL have been on a “shorter leash” because of their skin color
(Madden, 2004). This is just another example of how the NFL continues to struggle in terms of racial
hiring and firing practices when relating to their coaches (Kahn, 2004) The NBA and the NFL have a
similar percentage of minority players that make up their franchise. The NBA however, has a similar
percentage of minority players compared to minority coaches as a part of their organizations. However,
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THE NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE’S ROONEY RULE
the NFL, even though they have similar minority player percentages to the number of minority coaches,
lack significantly in the percentages of minority coaches compared to minority players.
With the start of the new millennium, the NFL and the NBA were heading in two
opposite directions in terms of minority hiring of head coaches (Collins, 2007). During the 2001-2002
seasons, 78 percent of the leagues players were African American but 48 percent of the head coaches
were also African American. In comparison, the NFL’s rosters were made up of 65 percent African
American players, but only six percent of the coaches were minorities. This means that of the 32 head
coaching positions, only two were held by African American coaches, even though the league’s players
made up well over half of the player population (Collins, 2007). While the coaching structure of the NFL
is much more complex than the NBA, it seems that there was a clear cultural bias that was prevalent in
the NFL that was not the same in its counterpart. In the NFL, there are an increased number of coaches
who hold a much more significant amount of say in the overall game plan and execution of the game
plan. This leads to a much greater amount of opportunities for power struggles within the coaching
ranks to arise. Therefore, the connection of performance based incentives and job security based on
performance should be much more prevalent in the landscape of assistant coaching jobs at the
professional level. A Title VII Lawsuit would be extremely detrimental to the NFL because of not only the
monetary loses that the league could face, but the publicity and potential lack of fans and overall
revenue that could be lost if the NFL were to be ruled “racist” in a court of law (Collins, 2007). Overall in
the NFL, there are more positional coaches then there are in either the NBA or MLB. For example, on
NFL coaching staffs you will have a coach for each position such as quarterback coach, running back
coach, wide receiver coach, and offensive line coach, along with head coordinators on each side of the
football (offense and defense). However in the NBA and MLB, there are no positional based coaches
such as point guard coach or short stop coach. There are only coaches who hold larger positions such as
hitting coach or pitching coach. Along with that issue, there are most starting players and larger rosters
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in the NFL. For each NFL roster there are 22 starters on offense and defense combined and a total of 53
players (“National Football League” n.d.). Usually MLB rosters have a total of 25 players total and the
NBA consists approximately 15 players total (Kahn, 2004). These numbers should indicate that there
should be more minority coaching opportunities based on the number of opportunities that are
available.
Title VII is a section of the 1964 Civil Rights Act prohibits not only intentional discrimination, but
also practices that have the effect of discriminating against individuals because of their race, color,
national origin, religion, or sex (“Federal laws prohibiting Job Discrimination”, 2009). This Act, among
other legislation passed to protect different workers from different forms of discrimination, is protected
by the EEOC or the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (Federal laws prohibiting Job
Discrimination, 2009). When an individual feels that they have had either their personal rights violated
or they have faced discrimination from an organization, that individual has two options in seeking action
against the employers. The first option is for the discriminated individual to file a charge with the EEOC.
Another option is to have any individual, group, or organization file a charge on the behalf of the
individual or group that feels that they have been discriminated against. In the case of the NFL, Lawyers
Johnnie Cochran and Cyrus Mehri threatened to file a Title VII lawsuit with the EEOC against the NFL
which could have lead to a Federal Court Hearing. After a charge is filed, there are many different
actions that the discriminatory organization can face (“Federal Laws Prohibiting”, 2009).
There are multiple actions that the EEOC can use in order to both investigate and determine if
an organization is worthy of bringing a lawsuit against in Federal Court (“Federal Laws Prohibiting”,
2009). First, a charge and a “right to sue” notice from the EEOC can be delivered to an individual if the
initial facts seem to warrant such action. Next, the EEOC can seek to settle the dispute without action if
both sides are willing to enter a negotiation. Third, the EEOC can choose to investigate which could
include anything from demanding documents, conducting interviews, review documents, and
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investigate on site at a desired location. The last option would be for both parties to consent to
mediation in which the EEOC would help both parties end their dispute confidentially. The EEOC
resolves conflicts by either issuing a “right to sue” notice to the individual filing the complaint. This
would give the discriminated individual 90 days to file a lawsuit against their employers. The two parties
could also find a way to settle out of court through private meetings or mediation (“Federal Laws
Prohibiting”, 2009).
In 2002, a report by lawyer Johnnie Cochran and Cyrus Mehri detailed the leagues, “dismal
record of minority hiring” (Collins, 2007, p. 885). The reported contained 15 years of analysis and
statistics that proved that the black coaches in the NFL often outperformed their white counterparts, yet
minorities were still being hired at a less rapid pace and often faced quicker termination in the face of
adversity (Collins, 2007, p. 883). These results are similar to the results found by Madden in 2004 and
Madden with the help of Ruther in two separate studies on the success rate of African American
coaches compared to their white equivalent (Madden, 2004). Cochran and Mehri’s report ended with
the call for a, “Fair Competition Resolution” for which incentives and punishments would be handed
down for teams in their following of the racial hiring practices (Bell, 2003). Following the release of the
report, Cochran and Mehri threatened to take action in the form of a class action lawsuit against the NFL
unless, “substantial progress [was] made by the NFL in the hiring of African Americans for head coaching
positions” (Collins, 2007, p. 887).
In response to the report and the threats by Cochran and Mehri, the league formed a committee
named the NFL Committee on Workplace Diversity. This committee was chaired by the owner of the
Pittsburgh Steelers, Dan Rooney (Madden, 2004). By December of 2002 the committee had drafted a
series of mandates that promoted and endorsed diversity in both coaching and management. One
specific mandate from the series was dubbed the “Rooney Rule” after the head of the committee. This
policy required the interviewing of one minority candidate for head coaching and top football
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THE NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE’S ROONEY RULE
operations positions. If these requirements were not met, the individual teams would be subject to
punishment by the league’s commissioner(Solow, Solow, and Walker, 2010). This mandate filled the
requirement of Cochran and Mehri’s,”Fair Competition Resolution” and they decided to not file an
affirmative action lawsuit against the league. In addition, in order for the league to keep its word, the
two lawyers formed a group called the Fritz Pollard Alliance, which was composed of former African
American athletes, with the goal of promoting diversity in head coaching, football operation, and
scouting hiring practice (Collins, 2007).
The Rooney Rule saw both early success and failure after its inception 2002. In the off-season
after the rule was implemented, the Cincinnati Bengals hired their first African American coach in
franchise history (Maravant, 2006). In this same year however, the only hiring that caused a team to get
penalized happened with the hiring of Steve Mariucci as the new Head Coach of the Detroit Lions. After
former Head Coach Marty Mornhinweg was fired in Detroit, rumors flew that Steve Mariucci was an
almost “lock” to become the next head coach of the Lions (Maravant, 2006). However, because of the
newest legislation from the NFL Committee on Workplace Diversity, the Lions were required to
interview at least one minority candidate for the position. A few weeks after Mornhinweg was fired,
Mariucci was introduced as the Lions new head coach. The NFL then proceeded to fine the franchise
$200,000 for failure to interview a minority candidate. The Lions owner and front office claimed that
every minority candidate that they intended to interview withdrew their name from consideration
because of the rumors that Mariucci was basically a lock to obtain the position (Maravant, 2006). This is
where the idea of reverse racism and candidates being used as “tokens” becomes part of the
conversation. If a team has no real intention of hiring a minority individual, yet goes through the
motions of an interview, there is no good faith effort and the intent of the rule is being violated
(Maravant, 2006). This case in 2002 has been the only such instance of a team being fined or punished
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THE NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE’S ROONEY RULE
for failure to interview a minority for a Head Coaching opening since the implementation of the Rooney
Rule.
Although this was the only formal violation, literature published after 2002 has not arrived at a
consensus about the effectiveness of the rule. Those of whom support the regulation argue that without
the Rooney Rule, minority candidates are at least getting the experience of interviewing for a head
coaching position and getting an interview that they may not have received in the past (Brown, 2008).
On the other hand, there is the field of thought that the forced interview is again a form of reverse
racism and an affirmative action issue (Maravent, 2008). There is information that suggests that even
before the implementation of the Rooney Rule, African American coaches in the NFL outperformed the
white coaches in the league in terms of regular season success. There is also analysis that demonstrates
that after the Rooney Rule was implemented, African American coaches have also been able to now
outperform the white coaches in the league by a substantial margin (Madden, 2004; Madden & Ruther,
2010).
The first study by Madden showed that the small portion of head coaches that were African
American outperformed their white equals in terms of regular season success. While the number of
head coaches that were minorities were significantly smaller, only four out of 32 in 2004, the average
regular season win percentage of the four was higher than that of the other white head coaches.
Madden uses these percentages to show that minority head coaches deserve more chances to lead NFL
teams in the future (Madden, 2004). The second study by Madden and Ruther showed that the success
of the minority coaches continued since the implementation of the Rooney Rule with the minority
coaches still out performing their white counterparts in overall regular season win percentage. The
study also included playoff win percentages in which the African American coaches showed significant
success. This success included the first time in which two minority coaches met in Super Bowl 41 with
the Indianapolis Colts and Tony Dungy beating the Chicago Bears. Madden and Ruther again showed
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THE NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE’S ROONEY RULE
information that minority coaches not only deserved more chances to lead teams, but proved once they
are given that chance, they are successful (Madden & Ruther, 2010).
Maravent believes that the Rooney Rule is strictly an affirmative action policy that creates a
safeguard for the NFL against class action lawsuits, similar to the one that Cochran and Mehri
threatened pre-regulation. Maravant is a lawyer who represents labor organizations and union rights
issues (2006). He uses the example of Coach Nick Saban and the Miami Dolphins. It was well known
around the league that the Dolphins wanted Nick Saban to be their head coach for the 2005 season
before any other coaches had even been interviewed. But, because of the new Rooney Rule, the
Dolphins had to not only interview five potential candidates, but one of those had to be a minority
(Maravent, 2006). So the Dolphins were forced to bring in a head coaching candidate, whom they had
no intention of hiring, for the sole purpose of filling their minority quota. Maravent views this as racism
because the Dolphins, in a sense, used Art Shell solely for the color of his skin and not his merit as a
coaching candidate. He also suggests the rule be applied to the front office hiring practices of NFL
franchises, which since the release of his review has been adapted by the league (Brown, 2008).
Maravant believed that if the rate of minority head coaches rose in the NFL, that the number of minority
candidates should also increase within the front office because those positions also directly relate to the
success of the football team on the field.
Solow, Solow, and Walker (2010) also chose to explore the effects of the Rooney Rule. Their
article analyzes assistant coaches in the NFL from 1970 to 2009 to determine if race had anything to do
with their promotion. The results of the article were that instead of race, that skill, qualification, and
track record were more of a measuring stick than that of candidate’s race (Solow et. all, 2010). The
authors also suggest that as the league has progressed with the implementation of the Rooney Rule, so
has the diversity of assistant coaches and intern the number of minority candidates that are receiving
chances to prove themselves on the head coaching level. The authors also look at how young assistant
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THE NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE’S ROONEY RULE
coaches are now often times groomed to be head coaches in waiting instead of older head coaches
taking over after years of experience coaching in the league.
Another piece of literature that explores race and ethnicity in the NFL is by Senggirbay in which
he discusses some of the different aspects of racial discrimination throughout the world and indirectly,
the workplace. The piece that relates the most to the NFL would be the discussion of Conflict Theory and
how different races react in different situations (Senggirbay, 2011). Senggirbay describes that when
relating to social structure, or in this case the workplace, when there is a scarcity of a resource one
group will become dominant in the situation to control the resource. This leads the dominant group to
use the power that it has established in order to maintain its privilege within the certain situation. The
last step is that the group in power legitimates their powers with a system of powers that establishes
their dominance (Senggirbay, 2011).
This Conflict Theory has a direct relationship to what has been established in the NFL over the
past 40 years. With the NFL being made up of 32 different franchises, there are a limited number of
positions that can be filled in terms of coaches and front office positions. When the NFL was formed, the
majority of coaches and front office workers were white males. This made it possible for white males to
set the standard and dominate and continue to hire within their own racial and sexual demographics
when new openings came up within the different organizations. This has allowed white males to
continue to set up a system that leads for white males to be hired into openings and minorities to have
to work harder in some cases in order to hire. We have seen this trend continue today with only seven
out of 32 head coaches in the NFL being of African American race(King, Leonard, & Kusz, 2007).
The current research on the minority hiring practices in the NFL to date have laid the foundation
that shows that minority coaches not only deserve a chance to be the face of an NFL franchise, but have
also shown documented success that equals their white counterparts. The literature also shows the
importance of equality in the hiring practices of the NFL, especially now with the NFL being a $6 Billion
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industry. The literature though does not review hires outside of the head coaching positions. This
research looks at the number of offensive coordinators, defensive coordinators, and general managers
at the implementation of the Rooney Rule and currently in the NFL to determine if a real change in
hiring’s have occurred. The main questions are if there
1. Has there been a change in the number of minority assistant coaches and general managers
that hold positions in the nine years since implementation of the Rooney Rule?
2. Is there a significant difference in the number of minorities in that hold coordinator
positions and General Manager positions as a part of the data? If there is, why are these
differences present in the overall number of positions held?
Method
There is a gap in research when relating to both the hiring of coordinators and front office
personal that are minorities within the NFL. There have been different pieces of literature that
demonstrate the different reasons behind the lack of minority hires among NFL Head Coaches (Collins,
2007). This group of 32 employees however is only a small group of employees that impacts the NFL.
While these 32 men are the ones who are most often in the spot light behind star players, the work of
not only the front office members, but also the coordinators who have a huge impact on the actual
product that is on the field on Sundays.
Sample Selection
All thirty-two NFL teams were used in this research project. As previous research has explored
the racial diversity of head coaches (Collins, 2007????), this research will use the positions of OC, DC,
GM for analysis. Although the Rooney Rule does not require minority candidate interview for this
population, Offensive and Defensive Coordinators can be the difference between winning or losing a
game through game planning and game day execution. The general manager position is now required
to interview a minority candidate, but there have been no studies to determine if there have been
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improvements made to the racial diversity of the front office since the implementation of the Rooney
rule.
Data Collection Procedure
Data collection was done from two different databases in order to find the personnel that were
on the pay roll of the 32 organizations in 2002 and also 2011. NFL teams only list their current staff as a
part of their team website so www.pro-football-reference.com was used in order to secure the three
positions to be analyzed from 2002. www.pro-football-reference.com is a database of statistics, and
personnel from each team as compiled by a mathematician and sports fans in an attempt to compile the
most diverse collection of football statistics available today. This website has been used as a part of
multiple scholarly articles relating to the Rooney Rule as a way to look back at what coaches held
different positions at specific points in time (Madden, 2004)
The current information was secured from www.nfl.com via each franchises team page. Most of
the coaching staffs had their own link, while the General Managers were found on the front office link,
for almost every case. This allowed for the acquisition of all of the information used to analyze the
effectiveness of the Rooney Rule since its implementation.
Data Analysis
After the compilation of the numbers, the numbers were entered into SPSS Statistics program
for analysis. White coaches and General Managers were entered as the number one to represent their
grouping. African American coaches and General Managers were entered in as the number two to
represent their group. The lone Hispanic coach, Ron Rivera, was entered in as the number three. For all
positions not reporting either a coordinator or a General Manager, the number four was entered. This
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THE NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE’S ROONEY RULE
allowed for the creation of tables that analyzed the number of coaches and General Managers within
the two sets of Data.
Originally, the percentage of minority coaches and General Managers among those positions
listed was going to be computed into a percentage in order to compare against its corresponding data
set. However, with there being 13 positions that did not report and with the number of non-reporting
franchises being different for every data set, only the pure number of minority positions holders were
used for analysis.
Results
Despite using sample that has only spanned over a short period of time, there is evidence that
the Rooney Rule has been effective since its inception. For the offensive coordinator position in 2002,
there were zero positions that were filled by minority coaches. Of the 28 teams that listed coaches for
their offensive coordinator position, all 28 of them were held by white employees (see Appendix A). This
is evidence of the reason that there was a legitimate Title VII issue in relating the hiring practices of NFL
franchises. In 2011 all but one franchise listed an offensive coordinator but only one out of the 31 listed
was a minority. Only Curtis Modkins of the Buffalo Bills was a minority candidate making only one out of
31 of the leagues’ offensive coordinators being minorities. While this is technically an improvement
from zero to one, it is difficult to justify an actual improvement because the ratio of white to minority
offensive coordinators is so low. Also it is difficult to justify a significant improvement because in 2002
the leagues total of minority offensive coordinators was zero and an improvement to one is not
significant.
Defensive coordinators were the most diverse position of the three that were analyzed. In
2002, seven out of the 29 coordinators that were listed by their franchises were of African American
ethnicity. (Appendix B). In 2011, there were also seven minority defensive coordinators in the league
15
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with six being African American and one being of Hispanic descent. However, only one team did not list
a defensive coordinator so while the actual number of minority defensive coordinators stayed the same,
there were more coaches being reported so the number in essence is worse in the present day in terms
of percentage (Appendix B).
In terms of the General Manager position of the 32 NFL franchises, in 2002, one of out the 28
positions were filled by a minority employee. This shows why the head of football operations was
included as a part of the Rooney Rule’s original target in change. In 2011, there was a significant
increase in minority General Managers with out of the 31 positions filled, four being held by minorities.
This equates to the only group of data that was analyzed to show any significant signs of improvement
after the implementation of the Rooney Rule (Appendix C)
Discussion
It is clear that there has not been must progress made in the field of offensive and defensive
coordinators since the Rooney Rule was implemented in 2002. In fact, the percentage of defensive
coordinators that are minorities has actually gone down. The only real head way that has been made has
been in the General Manager position. This could be attributed to the fact that minority candidates
must be interviewed for each General Manger opening that is available (Collins, 2007). Until the
mandatory minority interview is made a league wide policies for all positions, there still could be no
change to the number of minorities that are hired. Overall, the has been no real impact that has been
made outside of the Head Coaching and General Manager positions as created by the Rooney Rule.
At this point, it is unclear whether or not reverse racism is evident within the interview process
of NFL coordinator and General Manager vacancies during this day and age. In order for that to be
determined, an in depth analysis of the interview process, as well as inside information from the people
both interviewing and hiring prospective candidates would have to be interviewed. What can be
assumed though is that since the policy of required minority interviews has been implemented at some
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positions, those positions have seen an increase in minority hires. On the other hand, positions that do
not required interviews of minority candidates have made no progress towards equality. Whether this
change in the required interview positions is because of those forced interviews or the qualifications of
those applicants that are attempting to be hired, would require more inside information. In terms of
Tokenism, again, only the group of people holding the interviews will know if the minority candidate is
being actually considered or if they are only being interviewed as a part of the color of their skin. It
cannot be analyzed to this point without any further information.
In terms of conflict theory, it seems that the NFL is slowly but surely making progress towards
eliminating their discriminatory practices among at least some leadership positions. Previous works, like
that done by Madden and Maravant, have shown that minority head coaches are getting more
opportunities. Also, data from www.pro-football-reference.com has shown that General Managers are
also getting more opportunities among minority candidates. With Head Coaches and General Managers
being perhaps the most influential positions outside of the owners role, this is a good sign for the NFL in
terms of resolving their conflict as a part of the conflict theory.
Limitations and Future Research
With the Rooney Rule being established only nine years ago, there is a limited sample size that
can be viewed at this point in time. As the years go by, there will be more years to look at and it is
possible that as the years go on, the NFL will continue its trend of hiring minority Head Coaches and
General Managers and it will translate into other positions such as coordinators and other front office
positions. This research is also limited because it is impossible to know how the hiring process was held
for the different positions that came open since the Rooney Rule was implemented. There may have
been minority candidates that were interviewed for certain positions but just did not gain them because
their counterparts were more qualified or a better fit for the organization. Also, even if there was a rule
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THE NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE’S ROONEY RULE
that a minority must be interviewed with each opening, it is no guarantee that they will secure more
jobs just because an opportunity to interview is forced on the NFL franchise. Last, there is no certainty
that if the NFL makes it necessary to interview minority candidates for all of their football related
openings, there is still no guarantee that the number of employees will rise.
As the NFL and their hiring practices continue to evolve, so will the number of minority
candidates that are available for positions of importance. Since the Rooney Rule was only implemented
9 years ago, there is a small sample size of potential change. While the offensive and defensive
coordinator positions have had change over at almost every available position, there has not been much
change (Appendix 1,2). However, the change that is evident at the General Manager position is realistic
despite a much lesser rate of turn over (Appendix 3). Future research will have a larger sample size as
well as more turn over to see if there have been improvements in terms of the pure number of
minorities that hold positions among coordinators and General Managers. Future research could also
analyze other coaching positions or positions in the front office if the information can be secured.
Overall the Rooney Rule was implemented in order to improve the minority hiring practices
within the NFL. On a small scale, it has been successful in what it originally set out to do. By requiring
minority candidates are hired for both Head Coaching and General Manager position openings, a rise in
minority job holders has increased. However, outside of that scope, it is clear, at least on the football
side of the franchise, that there has been no head way made in terms of increased chances for
minorities. Unless there is a trickledown effect that can be seen from the Head Coaching and General
Manager positions, so other positions on the field and in the front office, the NFL could again find
themselves open to an Affirmative Action law suit as a part of Title VII. While the NFL has had a good
start on improving minority hiring practices within the last 9 years, there is still much that can be done
to bring a $9 billion industry closer to equality in the workplace.
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References
Bell, J. (2003, March 20). Watchdog group wants NFL’s hiring efforts to cover all jobs. USA Today, pp.
C3.
Brown, C. (2008, February 18) The colorblind hires are the best ones. The Sporting News, 232(7), 44-45
Collins, B. W. (2007). Tackling unconscious bias: The plight of the Rooney Rule. New York University
Law Review, 82(3), 870-912
Goff, B., L., & Tollison, R. D. (2009) Racial integration of coaching evidence from the NFL. Journal of
Sport Economics, 10(2), 127-140
Madden, J. F. (2004) Differences in the success of NFL coaches by race, 1990-2002, evidence of last hire.
last fire. Journal of Sports Economics, 5(1), 6-19
Madden, J. F., & Ruther, M. (2010) Has the NFL’s Rooney rule efforts “leveled the field” for African
American head coaching candidates. Journal of Sports Economics, 12(1), 1-16
Maravent, B. (2006). Is the Rooney Rule affirmative action? Analyzing the NFL’s mandate to its clubs
regarding coaching and front office hires. Sports Lawyers Journal, 13(1), 233-273
Kahn, L. M. (2004) Race, performance, pay, and retention among National Basketball Association head
coaches. Journal of Sports Economics, 7(2), 119-149
King, C., Leonard, D. J., & Kusz, K. W. (2007). White power and sport. Journal of sport & social Issues,
31(1), 3-10
Kooistra, P., Mahoney, J. S., & Bridges, L. (1993) The unequal opportunity of equal ability hypothesis:
Racism in the National Football League. Sociology of Sport Journal, 10(3), 241-255
Senggirbay, M. (2011). Main approaches to the definition of ethnic conflict. International
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(2009, November 21) Federal laws prohibiting Job Discrimination. Retrieved From
http://www.eeoc.gov/facts/qanda.html
(2010, September 29) Forbes Franchise Values. Retrieved from
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http:// http://www.pro-football-reference.com/
(2011) National Football League Website. Retrieved from
http://www.nfl.com
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Appendix A - Table of Contents – Offensive Coordinators
TEAM
Offensive Coordinator 2002
Offensive Coordinator 2011
Arizona Cardinals
Rich Olson (W)
Mike Miller (W)
Atlanta Falcons
None Listed
Mike Mularky (W)
Baltimore Ravens
None Listed
Cam Cameron (W)
Buffalo Bills
Kevin Gilbride (W)
Curtis Modkins (B)
Carolina Panthers
Dan Henning (W)
Rob Chudzinski (W)
Chicago Bears
John Shoop (W)
Mike Martz (W)
Cincinnati Bengals
Bob Bratkowski (W)
Jay Gruden (W)
Cleveland Browns
Bruce Arians (W)
Pat Shurmur (W)
Dallas Cowboys
Bruce Coslett (W)
None Listed
Denver Broncos
Gary Kubiack (W)
Dennis Allen (W)
Detroit Lions
None Listed
Scott Linehan (W)
Green Bay Packers
Tom Rossley (W)
Joe Philbin (W)
Houston Texans
Chris Palmer (W)
Rick Dennison (W)
Indianapolis Colts
None Listed
Clyde Christiansen (W)
Jacksonville Jaguars
Tony Sparano (W)
Dirk Koetter (W)
Kansas City Chiefs
Al Saunders (W)
Bill Muir (W)
Miami Dolphins
Norv Turner (W)
Brian Daboll (W)
Minnesota Vikings
Scott Linehan (W)
Bill Musgrave (W)
New England
Patriots
Charlie Weis (W)
Bill O’Brien (W)
New Orleans Saints
Mike McCarthy (W)
Pat Carmichael (W)
New York Jets
Paul Hackett (W)
Brian Schottenhiemer (W)
Oakland Raiders
Marc Trestman (W)
Al Saunders (W)
Philadelphia Eagles
Brad Childress (W)
Marty Mornhinweg (W)
Pittsburgh Steelers
Mike Mularky (W)
Bruce Arians (W)
San Diego Chargers
Cam Cameron (W)
Clarence Shelmon (W)
San Francisco 49ers
Greg Knapp (W)
Greg Roman (W)
Seattle Seahawks
Gil Haskell (W)
Darrell Bevell (W)
Tampa Bay
Buccaneers
Bill Muir (W)
Greg Olsen (W)
Tennessee Titans
Mike Heimerdinger (W)
Chris Palmer (W)
Washington
Redskins
Steve Spurrier (W)
Kyle Shanahan (W)
Note. Letter in parenthesis stands for minority status (W) = White (B) = Black (H) = Hispanic
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Appendix B – Table of Contents Defensive Coordinator
TEAM
Defensive Coordinator 2002
Defensive Coordinator 2011
Arizona Cardinals
Larry Marmie (W)
Ray Horton (B)
Atlanta Falcons
Wade Phillips (W)
Brian Van Gorder (W)
Baltimore Ravens
Mike Nolan (W)
Chuck Pagano (W)
Buffalo Bills
Jerry Gray (B)
George Edwards (B)
Carolina Panthers
Jack Del Rio (W)
Sean McDermott (W)
Chicago Bears
Greg Blache (B)
Rod Marinelli (W)
Cincinnati Bengals
Mark Dufner (W)
Mike Zimmer (W)
Cleveland Browns
Foge Fazio (W)
Dick Jauron (W)
Dallas Cowboys
Mike Zimmer (W)
Rob Ryan (W)
Denver Broncos
Ray Rhodes (B)
Mike McCoy (W)
Detroit Lions
Kurt Schottenheimer (W)
Gunther Cunningham (W)
Green Bay Packers
Ed Donatell (W)
Dom Capers (W)
Houston Texans
Vic Fangio (W)
Wade Phillips (W)
Indianapolis Colts
Ron Meeks (B)
Larry Coyer (W)
Jacksonville Jaguars
John Pease (W)
Mel Tucker (B)
Kansas City Chiefs
None Listed
Romeo Crennel (B)
Miami Dolphins
Jim Bates (W)
Mike Nolan (W)
Minnesota Vikings
Willie Shaw (B)
Fred Pagac (W)
New England
Patriots
Romeo Crennel (B)
None Listed
New Orleans Saints
Rick Venturi (W)
Gregg Williams (W)
New York Jets
None Listed
Mike Pettine (W)
Oakland Raiders
Chuck Bresnahan (W)
Chuck Bresnahan (W)
Philadelphia Eagles
Jim Johnson (W)
Juan Castillo (H)
Pittsburgh Steelers
Bill Cowher (W)
Dick LeBeau (W)
San Diego Chargers
Dale Lindsey (W)
Greg Manusky (W)
San Francisco 49ers
Jim Mora (W)
Vic Fangino (W)
Seattle Seahawks
Steve Sidwell (W)
Gus Bradley (W)
Tampa Bay
Buccaneers
Monte Kiffen (W)
None Listed
Tennessee Titans
Jim Schwartz (W)
Jerry Gray (W)
Washington
Redskins
Marvin Lewis (B)
Jim Haslett (W)
Note. Letter in parenthesis stands for minority status (W) = White (B) = Black (H) = Hispanic
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Appendix C – Table of Contents General Managers
TEAM
General Manager 2011
Arizona Cardinals
Rod Graves (B)
Atlanta Falcons
Thomas Dimitroff (W)
Baltimore Ravens
Ozzie Newsome (B)
Buffalo Bills
Buddy Nix (W)
Carolina Panthers
Marty Hurney (W)
Chicago Bears
Jerry Angelo (W)
Cincinnati Bengals
None Listed
Cleveland Browns
Tom Heckert (W)
Dallas Cowboys
Jerry Jones (W)
Denver Broncos
John Elway (W)
Detroit Lions
Martian Mayhew (B)
Green Bay Packers
Ted Thompson (W)
Houston Texans
Rick Smith (B)
Indianapolis Colts
Bill Polian (W)
Jacksonville Jaguars
Paul Vance (W)
Kansas City Chiefs
Scott Pioli (W)
Miami Dolphins
Jeff Ireland (W)
Minnesota Vikings
Rob Brzezinski (W)
New England
Patriots
Scott Pioli (W)
New Orleans Saints
Mickey Loomis (W)
New York Jets
Mike Tannenbaum (W)
Oakland Raiders
Al Davis (W)
Philadelphia Eagles
Andy Reid (W)
Pittsburgh Steelers
Kevin Colbert (W)
San Diego Chargers
A.J. Smith (W)
San Francisco 49ers
Trent Baalke
Seattle Seahawks
John Schneider (W)
Tampa Bay
Buccaneers
Mark Dominik (W)
Tennessee Titans
Lake Dawson (B)
Washington
Redskins
Bruce Allen (W)
Note. Letter in parenthesis stands for minority status (W) = White (B) = Black (H) = Hispanic
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