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509
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ISSN: 1307-9298
International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education
March 2022, Volume 14, Issue 4, 509-524
The Eect of Parent-Involved Reading
Activities On Primary School Students’
Reading Comprehension Skills,
Reading Motivation, and Attitudes
Towards Reading
*
Emir Feridun Çalışkan
a,**
, Abdulhak Halim Ulaş
b
Abstract
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to examine the eect of parent-
involved reading activities on elementary fourth graders’
reading comprehension skills, reading motivation, and
attitudes towards reading. Employing a pretest-posttest
quasi-experimental design with a paired control group,
data were collected from a total of 100 fourth graders
studying in two dierent primary schools. The findings
showed that there were significant dierences between
the experimental group and the control group, meaning
that the parent-involved reading activities developed
by the researchers had a positive eect on the students’
reading comprehension, reading motivation, and attitudes
towards reading. This research contributed to previous body
of research regarding the impact of family involvement
on academic achievement and aective factors. Various
suggestions were oered to policymakers, researchers and
practitioners.
I
t is widely accepted that parents have a significant role
in their children's education and influence their learning
and development (Froiland and Davison 2014; Pinquart,
2015). Many studies have shown that parent involvement
is related to children's academic success (McNeal, 2015;
Wang and Sheikh-Khalil 2014), their attitudes and motivation
towards school or lessons (Frenzel et al. 2010; Lipnevich
et al. 2016; Simpkins et al., 2015; Spera, 2006) and desire
for education (Jung and Zhang 2016, Leung et al. 2010).
Considering that reading comprehension skills acquired
in primary school years aect all learning experiences of
individuals throughout their lives (Bradley, 2016), it can be
argued that family involvement play an important role
in the development of primary school students' reading
comprehension skills.
Keywords:
Parental Involvement, Parent-Involved Reading, Reading
Comprehension, Reading Motivation, Attitudes Towards
Reading.
Received : 6 December 2021
Revised : 9 March 2022
Accepted : 30 March 2022
DOI : 10.26822/iejee.2022.260
*
This paper is based on a PhD dissertation submitted
to Atatürk University Graduate School of Educational
Sciences, Turkey and funded by Atatürk University
Scientific Research Projects Commission under the grant
no. SDK-2019-7170.
a,**
Corresponding Author: Emir Feridun Çalişkan, Faculty of
Education, Muş Alpaslan University, Muş, Turkey.
E-mail: ef.calisk[email protected].tr
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0650-896X
b,
Abdulhak Halim Ulaş, Faculty of Education, Atatürk
University, Erzurum, Turkey.
E-mail: [email protected]
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9457-1554
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March 2022, Volume 14, Issue 4, 509-524
The academic achievement of primary school students
with improved reading skills is higher than those with
poor skills (Epçaçan, 2018). The results obtained from
studies that make statistical comparisons about reading
comprehension on an international scale, such as the
Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)
and the Program for International Student Assessment
(PISA), in which Turkey also participate, show that, like
many countries, Turkish students do not have reading
and comprehension skills at a desired level (Aslanoğlu
and Kutlu, 2007; Özmusul and Kaya, 2014). Therefore,
there is a need for practices to improve reading and
comprehension. Reading comprehension, which is the
focus of this study and the main purpose of reading in
general is closely related to the concepts of motivation,
attitude and social environment since it is a mental,
psychological and sociological activity (Snow, 2002).
Reading is not only related to the individual, but also
the environment and family because it combines both
physical and mental factors (Ünal, 2006). The social
environment, including family members in particular,
is a considerably eective factor in the development
of reading comprehension skills. Considering this
eect, some researchers have drawn attention to the
concept of home literacy (Burgess et al., 2002; Hiğde
et al., 2020; Senechal and LeFeve, 2002). With home
literacy, it is expected that children will grow up in an
environment familiar with books, leading to a culture
of reading in individuals (Hiğde et al., 2020).
In the literature, valuable results have been obtained in
dierent studies on the eect of parental involvement
on reading. For example, parents' listening to their
children's reading, reading together, and supporting
them have been found to provide significant gains
in their literacy, positively aecting variables such
as reading speed, accuracy and fluency, as well as
contributing to independent reading (Hindin and
Paratore, 2007; Neuman and Celano, 2012; Senechal
and Young, 2008; Steiner, 2014; Steiner et al., 2022).
However, research on the relationship between
motivation and attitude, two factors that aect
reading comprehension, and parental involvement are
relatively limited (Klauda, 2009; Baker, 2003; Senechal
and Young, 2008; Loera et al., 2011; Pavalache-Ilie and
Tîrdia, 2015; Villiger et al., 2012; Yeo et al., 2014). These
studies focused on the impact of family culture, home
literacy environment and parental encouragement
on preschoolers and students with reading diculties,
and the eect of various reading activities on children's
reading achievement, the influence of immigrant
parents on children's reading involvement and intrinsic
motivation. Villiger et al. (2012) investigated the eect of
a home-based intervention program on fourth-grade
primary school students’ reading comprehension
and motivation. Despite the fact that families have
a significant capacity to boost reading motivation
(McElvany and Artelt, 2009), intervention programs that
integrate the family and school environment are rare
(Villiger et al., 2012), indicating a research gap in this
area. Considering the eect of parental involvement
on the development of reading skills, it is important
for schools and educators to determine how they can
help parents who have diculties in supporting their
children in this regard (Lee and Bowen, 2006).
Although there are findings that point to an increase in
student achievement by strengthening the relationship
between school and parents, limited attention is given
to how this school-parent cooperation or parent
participation should be provided and developed.
The present study aims to examine the eect of
parent involvement through parent-involved reading
activities on children's reading comprehension,
reading motivation and attitudes towards reading.
The research questions that are posed in the study are
as follows:
1. What are elementary fourth graders’
levels of reading comprehension, reading
motivation, and attitudes towards reading
before the experimental process?
2. Is there a significant dierence between
the experimental group in which parent-
involved reading activities are applied
and the control group in terms of posttest
scores in reading comprehension, reading
motivation, and attitudes towards reading?
Theoretical Foundations
Although dierent concepts emerge in the definitions
related to reading, the concept of "comprehension"
is mentioned in almost all definitions. For reading
to have a value and for the realization of high-
level mental processes such as interpretation and
meaning construction, the act of reading must
first result in comprehension. the reading activity
has a " comprehension" goal at its core. A reading
activity that does not result in comprehension
cannot be considered to have achieved its real
purpose. Comprehension is possible when the
individual comprehends the meaning represented
by printed symbols (Luma, 2002). Reading without
comprehension is not reading, but merely vocalization
(Yılmaz and Köksal, 2008). Akyol (2006) defines reading
comprehension as forming a new thought because
it involves comparing and synthesizing readers’ prior
knowledge with what they have learned from texts.
In the context of primary school children, it can be
concluded that they must encounter rich stimuli to
increase their prior knowledge. Children who grow up
in such an environment will have more background
knowledge and will be more successful in reading
comprehension than their peers. Snow (2002) states
that the reading comprehension process consists of
three basic elements: reader, text and the reading
activity. Readers make sense of the text in a complex
process involving their cognitive abilities (i.e., attention,
memory, analytical thinking, inference, visualization),
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The Eect of Parent-Involved Reading Activities / Çalişkan & Ulaş
motivation (ii., reading motivation, interest in
content, self-ecacy), knowledge (i.e., vocabulary,
content, grammar and discourse, comprehension
strategies) and experience. These characteristics vary
considerably among readers and cause dierences
in reading comprehension levels among individuals
(Snow, 2002).
Motivation, the second key concept in the present
study, is the force that pushes a person to be involved
in any activity (Kreitner, 1995). Guthrie and Wigfield
(2000) define reading motivation as individuals' goals,
values, and beliefs about the subject, process and
reading outcomes. Reading motivation can be quite
eective in directing individuals to read and help
them comprehend what they read, and therefore
more emphasis should be placed on this concept.
Motivated readers spend more energy and time in
reading than in other activities (Wigfield and Tonks,
2004). This power can be internal (eg interest and
curiosity) or external (eg reward, family, friends, school,
etc.). (Wigfield and Guthrie, 1997). Students who are
intrinsically motivated are more inclined to explore
the world of reading, find various topics that interest
them, enjoy reading, have diculty coping with the
diculties they encounter, and improve their reading
skills (Hidi, 2000).
Attitudes towards reading, the third key concept of
this paper, are individuals' feelings towards reading
and determine how often children read (Partin and
Hendricks, 2002). To provide the expected personal
and social benefits in reading, individuals should love
reading and should not avoid it (Akkaya and Özdemir,
2013). Students' attitudes towards reading aect their
motivation to reading (McGeown et al., 2015). In this
regard, positive attitudes towards reading can also
play an important role in time that individuals spend
for reading and the strategy they use to comprehend
what is read. Accordingly, many studies have shown
that positive attitudes towards reading have an
impact on reading instruction (Gibbons 2003; Forman
et al., 1998; Marshal, 1992; McKenna et al., 1995;
McKenna and Kear 1990; Smith, 1992). Consequently,
students with positive attitudes tend to be successful
readers.
When empirical studies on family involvement are
examined, it has been observed that researchers
tend to use some theories and models to explain the
family-school partnership and frame their studies
(Yamauchi et al., 2017). Social Learning Theory, Socio-
cultural Learning Theory, Social Capital Theory,
Ecological Systems Theory, and Epstein's Parental
Involvement Model can be given as examples. Social
Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) considers how both
environmental and cognitive factors interact to
influence human learning and behavior. The theory
focuses on the significance of observing, modeling,
and imitating the behaviors of other individuals
(Bandura, 1977). In this vein, individuals, especially
children, observe many people such as their parents,
elder siblings, friends, and teachers around them
and might see them as role models. Sociocultural
Theory (Vygotsky, 1978) emphasizes the role that
social interaction plays in psychological development.
He proposes that learning is largely a social process
and that our cognitive functions are based on our
interactions with the "more gifted" people around
us. With the concept of the Zone of Proximal
Developmental (ZPD), Vygotsky states that children
can generally expand their developmental areas
by observing more developed individuals (Vygotsky,
1978). The environment in the family is considered
the first and most influential factor for children.
This is because parents can monitor their children’s
potential more closely. Parents also provide valuable
assistance to educators on how to develop this
potential. Parents form the closest social environment
where schools communicate with students and
are primarily responsible for their activities outside
of school. Therefore, it would be a big mistake for
parents not to be involved in the learning process as
they are their children's first teachers. Social Capital
Theory claims that social relationships are resources
that can lead to the development and accumulation
of human capital (Bourdieu, 1986). For example, a
stable family environment can support educational
success. Bronfenbrenner's (1977) Ecological Systems
Theory views child development as a complex system
of relationships influenced by various levels of the
surrounding environment, from family and school
settings to broad cultural values, laws, and customs.
Thus, to examine a child's development, one must look
not only at the child and his immediate environment,
but also at the interaction of the wider environment.
Bronfenbrenner divided the person's environment
into five dierent systems: microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem
(Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The microsystem is the most
influential level of the theory. This system includes
closest environments such as school and family in
which children are involved.
Epstein (1995) developed a framework that describes
six dierent types of parent involvement (See. Figure
1.). The types of family involvement included in
his model constitute the most popular framework
researchers use to conceptualize the family-school
partnership. Epstein argues that schools often have
better outcomes when parents are involved because
students are influenced by the coherent message that
home and school create about the importance of
education (Epstein and Sanders, 2000). The theoretical
framework of this study was also built on Epstein's six
types of parent involvement.
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March 2022, Volume 14, Issue 4, 509-524
Figure 1.
Epstein's model of six types of parent involvement
Epstein (2018) states that parent involvement can
be provided in six dierent ways in the parent
involvement model, which includes some suggestions
to improve school-family cooperation. These include
parenting, communication, volunteering, learning at
home, decision-making, and collaboration with the
community.
The first type of participation is through primary
parenting. Basic parenting means meeting the basic
needs of parents, including issues related to health,
shelter, safety, and nutrition. It also includes all the
activities done to help parents support the learning
environment at home. The second type of parent
involvement is communication that occurs when
eective mutual communication is established
between school and family about children’s
education and development. Communication can
take various forms such as phone calls, notes and
meetings. The third type, volunteering, occurs when
parents take time out to help the school system or
participate in school activities. Volunteering refers to
voluntary families who contribute to the education of
their children. It can be in the form of parents coming
to school to help students and teachers traditionally.
The fourth type of participation, home learning,
includes all activities for helping the child with
homework or other lesson-related tasks. Parents can
talk to their children about school at home, help them
with homework, and help them develop necessary
skills. The fifth type, decision making, focuses on the
representation of parents in the school system and
their formal participation in decisions. By taking part
in school-parent unions, families can have a say in
the policy and management of the school. The last
type, cooperation with the community, refers to the
cooperation of parents with the school and society to
strengthen school programs and contribute to student
learning (Epstein, 1995; 2018).
Conceptual Framework
In this study, a conceptual framework was developed
based on the theoretical basis outlined above (Figure
2). Reading activities with parental participation were
created under the learning-at-home dimension to
examine its eect on reading comprehension, reading
motivation and attitudes towards reading.
Figure 2.
The conceptual framework of the structural
relationship between parent involvement, reading
comprehension, reading motivation and attitude
towards reading.
Based on theory and research summarized above,
parental involvement can be argued to have a strong
relationship with reading comprehension, reading
motivation and attitude towards reading. By means of
this study, it is aimed to provide the literature valuable
evidence that parent involvement can have a role in
dierent aspects of reading comprehension skills.
Research Method
In this study, a pretest-posttest quasi-experimental
design with a paired control group was used to
investigate the eect of parent involvement on
reading comprehension, reading motivation and
attitudes towards reading. Experimental studies are
attempts to test the eect of dierences created by
the researcher on a dependent variable (Büyüköztürk
et al., 2012). Quantitative data obtained through scales
in the experimental process contain closed-ended
information and are analyzed employing statistical
methods (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011).
The pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design with a
paired control group aims to match the groups based
on certain variables. No random assignments are done
in this design. However, it is a good alternative in cases
where random assignment is not possible (Büyüköztürk
et al., 2012). A non-significant dierence between
the groups in the pretest scores is important in terms
of equivalence. At the end of the process, the data
are compared to see whether there is a significant
dierence between the experimental and the control
group based on the posttest scores (Bulduk, 2003).
The model of the experimental design followed in the
present study is represented in Figure 3.
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The Eect of Parent-Involved Reading Activities / Çalişkan & Ulaş
The participants in both groups were tested
concerning the dependent variable before and after
the experimental procedure. The scores obtained
from the reading comprehension achievement test,
reading attitude scale, and reading motivation scale
constituted the dependent variable of the study.
The experimental and control groups were formed
through pairing after the pretest. Parent-involved
reading activities developed by the researchers were
regarded as the independent variable. In this context,
it was examined whether the independent variable
influenced the dependent variables.
Implementation Process
Development of parent-involved reading activities:
In the experimental process, parent-involved reading
activities were done by the students and their parents.
The process in which the reading activities were
developed is represented in Figure 4.
Determining the texts: Parent-involved reading
activities are a set of materials consisting of reading
comprehension activities related to narrative and
informative texts. The development of these activities
started first by determining the narrative and
informative texts suitable for the fourth graders. A
pool of 24 texts comprising 12 narrative texts and 12
informative texts, selected from books approved by
the Ministry of National Education and suitable for the
level of fourth-graders, was created as a result of a
review lasting approximately three months.
Receiving expert opinion: An expert opinion form was
prepared to determine which texts were suitable for
use in the reading activities. The texts were sent to 10
experts, three Turkish language teacher trainers and
three primary school teacher trainers working at the
Faculty of Education, Muş Alparslan University, Turkey,
and four primary school teachers teaching fourth
graders. In this form, they were asked to evaluate the
Figure 3.
Pretest-posttest paired control group design.
Figure 4.
Process of developing the reading activities
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March 2022, Volume 14, Issue 4, 509-524
texts as appropriate, somewhat appropriate, and
not appropriate, writing additional comments when
necessary. As a result of the experts' evaluation, eight
texts with the lowest score were eliminated, and the
remaining 16 texts were deemed appropriate to be
used in the reading activities.
Designing the activities: A wide range of texts and
relevant activities are included in coursebooks
to equip students with reading comprehension
skills as part of the objectives for Turkish language
education in Turkey. Akyol (2006) indicated that it
is necessary to follow certain steps to reach the
meaning in reading, and systematically describes
these steps to be taken before, during, and after
reading. Therefore, the activities that can be done
before reading as scanning, setting goals for reading,
recalling the background knowledge to the reading
environment, and making guesses were designed
in this direction. As for the during-reading activities,
reading fluently, checking comprehension, and using
helpful strategies can be considered as appropriate
for this study. While preparing the reading activities
with parent participation in the present study, these
steps were taken into consideration, and the activities
were categorized as pre-, during- and post-reading
activities. Following the determination of the reading
texts, the reading comprehension activities for each
text were designed by considering the reading
comprehension outcomes set in the Turkish language
course curriculum. Expert opinion was also received
concerning the designed activities. The experts were
two Turkish language teacher trainers and three
primary school teacher trainers. The activities were
organized in line with the feedback received from the
experts and were finalized for use in practice.
Pilot study: Before proceeding with the implementation,
pilot sessions including three weeks of the reading
activities with parent involvement were conducted
with four parents.
Revising and finalizing the activities for implementation:
The activities were revised based on the feedback
received from two Turkish language teacher trainers
and finalized for implementation.
Implementing parent-involved reading activities:
Before the implementation process, training in which
the activities were developed by the researchers
was given to the parents. The parents who attended
the training were informed about their children’s
performance and how to implement the reading
activities at home and provided with a guide brochure.
The training was held in two sessions for a total of six
hours. It consisted of 16 activities, eight of which are
related to narrative texts and the remaining about
informative texts. These activities (i.e., two activities
a week; a narrative and an informative text and
relevant activities) were given to the experimental
group students every Monday, and the ones that had
been completed were gathered the same day of the
following week. At the end of each activity, parents
were asked to sign the pack and write their opinions
and thoughts about the activities to monitor whether
the tasks were implemented. The process started with
50 parents and their children, and the activity packs
were examined weekly, the mistakes made in the
activities were noted and shared with the parents
by the researchers. A file was kept for the activities
of each student, home visits were conducted, and
the general evaluation of all activities was done with
the parents. Four students and their parents who
did not complete the activities and abandoned the
process were not evaluated in the final tests. During
the implementation of the activities, the researchers
visited the parents at home and had the opportunity
to observe their eorts on site and intervened when
necessary. At the end of the process, a library trip was
organized by researcher with the students and their
parents, they registered for the library membership,
and the students have presented a book as a gift to
ensure the continuity of the study.
For pre-reading, during-reading, and post-reading
stages, varieties of parent-involved reading activities
were implemented. For pre-reading, certain activities
on mentally preparing learners and directing their
attention and interest to the text were applied. For
during-reading, the participating parents read aloud
the text and the learners listened to them while paying
attention to intonation and body movements. In this
way, the learners were advised to picture what they
hear in their minds so that interactive reading could be
achieved. Then the learners read the text aloud and
by themselves. Activities on evaluating and analyzing
the text were used for post-reading. In one of the
activities regarding post-reading, an activity called
“Face of a Story” was used. In this activity, a visual
map of the story is created. The learners visualized the
characters, the plot, and events in the form of a map.
In this way, they summarized the story that they have
read in an analytical way.
Participants
The group of participants was composed of fourth-
graders studying in two dierent primary schools in
the central district of Muş province in Eastern Turkey.
According to the data published by the Turkish
Statistical Institute, one of these schools were in a
neighborhood with low socioeconomic status, while
the other schools were in a neighborhood with high
socioeconomic status. These schools were selected
is to ensure maximum diversity, allowing the sample
to better reflect the general student and parent
population.
A total of 245 primary school fourth-graders were pre-
tested to select the participants. In the light of the
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The Eect of Parent-Involved Reading Activities / Çalişkan & Ulaş
data obtained from the pre-test, the individuals who
were selected included a total of 115 students whose
scores were lower than the mean score and were
close to each other in the reading comprehension
achievement test. A letter was sent to the parents of
115 students to inform them about the purpose and
process of the study and invited them to participate in
this endeavor. The parents who wanted to participate
in the study were told that a training session for them
would be held by the researchers. 60 parents said
who said they wanted to participate. The contact
information of these parents was received, and the
day and time of the training were scheduled. A total
of 50 parents participated in the training. Thus, the
experimental group of the study consisted of the
parents and their children who declared that they
wanted to participate in the study voluntarily and
attended the training for parents. Some demographic
data about parents are presented in Table 1.
Table 1.
Demographic Characteristics of the Experimental
Group Students' Parents
Variable f %
Age
22-31 9 18
32-42 33 66
42 and above 8 16
Relationship
Mother 24 48
Father 23 46
Brother 1 2
Other 2 4
Profession
Housewife 20 40
Employee 7 14
Small business owner 9 18
Public servant 14 28
Educational Level
Primary school graduate 21 42
Secondary school graduate 6 12
High school graduate 8 16
Faculty / College graduate 9 18
Master/Doctoral graduate 6 12
Income status
0-1600 ₺ 18 36
1601-2600 ₺ 8 16
2601-3600 ₺ 13 26
3600+ ₺ 11 22
Number of
Children
1 3 6
2-3 26 52
4-5 14 28
5+ 7 14
Total 50 100
In Table 1, demographic characteristics of the parents
of the students in the experimental group are given.
According to the table, 66% of the parents are in
the age range of 32-42, while 18% are over the age
of 22-31, and 16% are over the age of 42. Regarding
the relationship, 24 mothers, 23 fathers, one brother,
one aunt, and one uncle participated in the study
as parents. When the profession of the parents is
examined, it is seen that 40% are housewives, 28%
are public servants, 18% are small business owners,
and 14% are employed in any workplace. When
the educational levels of the parents are examined,
42% of the parents are primary school graduates,
18% are faculty or college graduates, 16% are high
school graduates, and 12% are graduate students.
The income status of the families is as follows: 36% of
the parents are in the income range of 0-1600Ⱡ, 26%
of them are in the range of 2601-3600 ₺, 22% of them
are in the income range of 3600₺ and above, and
16% of them are in the income range of 1601-2600₺. It
is seen in the table that 52% of the families consist of
2-3 children, 28% of them consists of 4-5 children, 14%
of them consists of more than 5 children, while only 3
(6%) families have a single child.
On the other hand, the control group was formed
as a result of pairing with the students in the same
class who got scores close to the average scores of
the students in the experimental group in the pre-
test. This pairing aimed to keep the factors that may
aect the research result under control and to ensure
that the experimental and control groups were as
equivalent as possible. Table 2 shows the distribution
of the students in the experiment and control groups
by gender.
Table 2.
Distribution of the Students in the Experimental and
Control Groups by Gender
Groups Gender N %
Experimental Group
Male 20 40
Female 30 60
Total 50 100
Control Group
Male 25 50
Female 25 50
Total 50 100
Data Collection Tools
Reading motivation scale: This scale was developed
by Wigfield and Guthrie (1997) to measure children's
reading motivation and adapted to Turkish by
Yıldız (2010). Yıldız (2010) re-modeled the scale with
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) as part of an
adaptation study and yielded a valid scale structure
consisting of internal and external dimensions of
motivation. As a result of his reliability analysis, he
reported the Cronbach Alpha internal consistency
coecient as .84 for the whole scale, while it was
found as .81 in the present study.
Reading attitude scale: This scale was developed by
McKenna and Kear (1990) and adapted to Turkish by
Kocaarslan (2016). It has a four-point Likert type rating
and consists of 20 items in total. The scale has two
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March 2022, Volume 14, Issue 4, 509-524
factors: reading for pleasure and academic reading.
The first ten items of the scale measure the attitude
towards reading for pleasure, while the last ten
items are related to the attitudes towards academic
reading. Four Garfield visuals are used in the grading,
ranging between "Happiest Garfield", "Slightly Smiling
Garfield", "Mildly Upset Garfield" and "Very Upset
Garfield". Kocaarslan (2016) calculated the Cronbach
Alpha coecient of the scale as .88, while it was found
as .78 in this study.
Reading comprehension test: The test was developed
by Yıldız (2010) and consists of 28 multiple choice
questions about an informative text and a narrative
text. Accordingly, narrative and informative texts were
also used in parent-involved reading activities. Yıldız
(2010) reported the reliability coecients of the test
as .71 for the narrative part and .77 for the informative
part. In this study, the reliability coecients were found
as .70 and .73, respectively.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using SPSS 23.0 Package
program. In the analysis, it was first checked whether
the data were parametric or non-parametric.
Analyses of skewness, kurtosis and histogram graph
were performed to see the distribution. When the
parametric conditions were met, the Independent
Samples t-Test was used to examine whether there
was a significant dierence between the experimental
and control groups.
Findings
In this section, the pre-test and post-test scores of
experimental and control group students in reading
comprehension achievement, reading motivation
and reading attitude scales were analyzed. To test
whether the dierence between the sample means
is significant, independent samples T-test is used
when the groups are normally distributed, while
Man Whitney U test is used when it does not show
a normal distribution. The T-test assumptions were
checked to decide which test to use. In this context,
a pre-test was administered to both groups and the
groups were independent of each other. To examine
the distribution of normality, skewness and kurtosis
coecients and histogram graph of the distribution
were examined. The calculated skewness and kurtosis
indices close to 0 within the limits of ± 2 are considered
as evidence of the presence of the normal distribution
(Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013).
Findings on Pre-test Scores
As is seen in Table 3, the values of skewness and
kurtosis coecients vary between +1 and -1 in both
sub-dimensions and scale totals, which shows that
the distribution is normal. According to the histogram
graphs, the distribution of the scores in the sub-
dimensions and the scale total scores is normal.
Accordingly, the above assumptions are confirmed,
and a t-test can be applied in the analysis of the
scales.
As is seen in Table 4, there was no significant dierence
between the scores of the experimental and control
groups in the reading motivation scale (t (98) = .710, p>
0.05), neither were there any significant dierences
between the groups in the sub-dimensions “intrinsic
motivation” (t (87.75) = .472, p > 0.05) and “external
motivation” (t (81,40) = .339, p > 0.05). As for the scores
in the reading attitude scale, the groups did not dier
significantly in the whole scale (t (98) = .499, p > 0.05),
and in the sub-dimensions “reading for pleasure” (t
(96,30) = .,955, p > 0.05) and “reading for academic
purposes” (t (98) = .220, p > 0.05). Lastly, there was no
significant dierence between the mean scores of
the experimental and control groups in the reading
comprehension achievement test (t (98) =. 946, p >
0.05), and in its sections related to a narrative text
(t (98) = .871, p > 0.05) and an informative text (t (98)
= .971, p > 0.05). The pre-test results showed that the
reading motivation, reading attitudes, and reading
comprehension achievement of the groups were
equal or close to each other before the experimental
process.
Table 3.
Results of the Normality Distribution Analysis Based on the Pre-test
Variable Skewness Kurtosis Standard Deviation Average
Intrinsic Motivation .150 -.273 .359 2.15
Extrinsic Motivation .201 .176 .301 2.13
Reading Motivation Total .203 -.011 .288 2.14
Reading for Pleasure -.771 .045 .246 2.31
Reading for Academic Purposes -.705 .753 .279 2.20
Reading Attitude Total -.744 .524 .24 2.26
Narrative text .077 .141 2.44 7.62
Informative text .673 -.339 2.76 5.77
Reading Comprehension Total .404 -.513 4.39 13.39
517
The Eect of Parent-Involved Reading Activities / Çalişkan & Ulaş
Findings on Post-test Scores
Similar to the analysis of the pre-test instruments,
the assumptions were firstly checked in the post-test
results. Skewness-kurtosis, standard deviation and
mean scores obtained from the post-test are given in
the Table 5.
The skewness and kurtosis coecients presented
show that the values in both sub-dimensions and
scale-totals vary between +1 and -1, which indicates
that the distribution is normal. According to the
histogram graphs examined, it is possible to say that
the distribution of the scores obtained from the scales
and their sub-dimensions does not show serious
deviations and is normally distributed. Accordingly,
the assumptions are confirmed, and a t-test can be
applied in the analysis of the scales.
As is seen in Table 6, there was a significant dierence
between the mean scores of the experimental (X
̄
= 3.31)
and the control group (X
̄
= 2.53) in the reading motivation
scale in favor of the experimental group (t (90) = .000,
p < 0.05). In the intrinsic motivation sub-dimension of
the scale, there was a significant dierence between
the mean scores of the experimental (X
̄
= 3.21) and the
control group (X
̄
= 2.47), and this dierence was also
in favor of the experimental group (t (90) = .000, p <
0.05). As for the external motivation sub-dimension,
a significant dierence was observed between the
experimental (X
̄
= 3.35) and the control group (X
̄
=2.56)
with the experimental group students outperforming
the control group (t (90) = .000, p < 0.05). The η
2
value
calculated for the whole scale was found as .42, which
indicates a large eect size.
Table 4.
T-Test Results of Pre-Test Scores
Dimensions Groups N X
̄
SE t p
Intrinsic Motivation
Experimental 50 2.18 .417
-.722 .472
Control 50 2.13 .292
Extrinsic Motivation
Experimental 50 2.15 .362
.962 .339
Control 50 2.09 .223
Reading Motivation Total
Experimental 50 2.14 .347
373 .710
Control 50 2.12 .216
Reading for Pleasure
Experimental 50 2.31 .263
-.057 .955
Control 50 2.31 .230
Reading for Academic Purposes
Experimental 50 2.23 .307
1.23 .220
Control 50 2.16 .245
Reading Attitude Total
Experimental 50 2.27 .267
.678 .499
Control 50 2.24 .209
Narrative text
Experimental 50 7.66 2.42
.163 .871
Control 50 7.58 2.49
Informative text
Experimental 50 5.76 2.67
.036 .971
Control 50 5.78 2.88
Reading Comprehension Total
Experimental 50 13.42 4.71
.068 .946
Control 50 13.36 4.10
Table 5.
Results of the Normality Distribution Analysis Based on the Post-test
Variable Skewness Kurtosis Standard Deviation Average
Intrinsic Motivation -.071 -.772 .679 2.84
Extrinsic Motivation -.074 -.808 .626 2.96
Reading Motivation Total -.051 -.800 .602 2.92
Reading for Pleasure -.003 -.794 .511 3.06
Reading for Academic Purposes .013 -.575 .574 2.94
Reading Attitude Total .088 -.762 .514 3.00
Narrative text -.314 -,317 2.80 9.05
Informative text .149 -.920 3.14 7.78
Reading Comprehension Total .013 -.641 7.43 16.84
518
March 2022, Volume 14, Issue 4, 509-524
In the attitudes towards reading, there was a
significant dierence in favor of the experimental
group when compared to the control group in their
mean scores, X
̄
= 3.38 and X
̄
= 2.61, respectively, (t (90) =
.000, p < 0.05). Regarding the sub-dimension “reading
for pleasure”, there was a significant dierence
between the mean scores of the experimental (X
̄
=3.41)
and the control group score (X
̄
= 2.70) in favor of the
experimental group (t (90) = .000, p < 0.05). Concerning
the sub-dimension “reading for academic purposes”,
a significant dierence was observed between the
mean scores of the experimental (X
̄
= 3.35) and the
control group (X
̄
= 2.53), which was also in favor of
the experimental group (t (90) = .000, p < 0.05). The η
2
value calculated for the whole scale was found as .56,
which indicates a large eect size.
In reading comprehension, there was a significant
dierence between the mean scores of the
experimental (X
̄
= 18.73) and the control group (X
̄
= 14.93)
in which the experimental group students performed
better (t (90) = .000, p < 0.05). In the section about the
narrative text, there was also a significant dierence
between the mean scores of the experimental (X
̄
=
9.89) and the control group (X
̄
= 8.21) in favor of the
experimental group (t (90) = .004, p < 0.05). As for
the section about the informative text, a significant
dierence was also observed in the mean scores of
the experimental (X
̄
= 8.84) and the control group (X
̄
=
2.53) in favor of the experimental group (t (90) = .001, p
< 0.05). The η
2
value calculated for the whole test was
found to be .13, indicating a moderate eect size.
Conclusion and Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to examine
the eects of parent-involved reading activities
on primary school fourth-grade students' reading
comprehension skills, reading motivation and attitudes
towards reading. In this section, the findings on the
eect of family involvement on students' reading
comprehension, reading motivation and attitude
towards reading are summarized and discussed.
Positive Eect of Parent-Involved Reading Activities on
Students' Reading Comprehension Levels.
The first research question was whether the dierence
between the reading comprehension post-test scores
of the experimental and control group students was
statistically significant. As a result of the analysis,
it was seen that reading activities with parental
participation had a positive eect on students' reading
comprehension levels.
In the literature, there is evidence of a positive correlation
between the level of parental involvement and reading
comprehension. For example, Bond (2011) examined
the relationship between family involvement and
reading comprehension achievement, motivation and
attitudes on primary school second and third-graders,
reporting a positive eect of parental involvement
on reading achievement, attitudes and motivation.
York (2006), in his study investigating the eect of
parental involvement on reading achievement,
concluded that as the level of parental involvement
Table 6.
T-Test Results of Post-Test Scores
Dimensions Groups N X
̄
SE t p
Intrinsic Motivation
Experimental
46 3.21 .603
6.28 .000
Control 46 2.47 .533
Extrinsic Motivation
Experimental 46 3.35 .530
7.90 .000
Control 46 2.56 .431
Reading Motivation Total
Experimental 46 3.31 .499
8.12 .000
Control 46 2.53 .415
Reading for Pleasure
Experimental 46 3.41 .413
9.27 .000
Control 46 2.70 .314
Reading for Academic Purposes
Experimental 46 3.35 .410
9.91 .000
Control 46 2.53 .387
Reading Attitude Total
Experimental 46 3.38 .367
10.77 .000
Control 46 2.61 .313
Narrative text
Experimental 46 9.89 2,66
2.98 .004
Control 46 8.21 2.70
Informative text
Experimental 46 8.84 3.01
3.43 .001
Control 46 6.71 2.93
Reading Comprehension Total
Experimental 46 18.73 4.87
3.69 .000
Control 46 14.93 4.99
519
The Eect of Parent-Involved Reading Activities / Çalişkan & Ulaş
increased, the level of reading achievement also
increased. Moreover, in some studies in the literature,
it is stated that parental participation contributes to
the academic achievement and course performance
of students in general (Bailey, 2017; Topor et al., 2010).
In this context, positive results have been obtained
in studies on parental involvement conducted at
home and at school to improve reading and reading
comprehension as an academic skill (Epstein, 2001;
Baker, 2003; Mraz and Rasinski, 2007; Tonn and
Wailheiser, 2007). However, in several studies, a
positive relationship was not found between parental
involvement and academic achievement (Okpala et
al., 2001), whereas few studies reported a negative
relationship (Hill and Tyson, 2009; Jeynes, 2005). The
discrepancies in research findings may be because
parents are not adequately trained to teach certain
concepts or they are not familiar with the teaching
methods in the studies concerned. However, instead
of focusing on the relationship between the level of
parental involvement and any academic skill without
an intervention, the eects of practices in which
parents regularly worked with their children through
parent-involved reading activities were investigated
in the present study. Therefore, in addition to the
potentially positive relationship between parental
involvement and reading comprehension, intervention
programs aiming to enhance the level of participation
can yield fruitful results. In this regard, communication
channels between parents and school need to be
further strengthened to enable the participation of
parents.
Increased Reading Motivation Through Parent-
Involved Reading Activities
The second research question of the study was
whether the dierence between the reading
motivation post-test scores of the experimental and
control group students was statistically significant. For
this purpose, a reading motivation scale was applied
to the students before and after the experimental
process. As a result of the analyses, it was seen that
the students in the experimental group obtained
statistically significantly higher motivation scores than
the students in the control group.
Although many dimensions have been proposed
regarding the reasons or incentives that lead to reading,
reading motivation is generally categorized as intrinsic
and extrinsic (Unrau and Schlackman, 2006; Wigfield
and Guthrie, 1997). Therefore, the data obtained from
this study were examined in internal and external
dimensions. Intrinsically motivated individuals read to
explore the world of reading, find various topics that
interest them, enjoy reading, struggle to cope with the
diculties they encounter, and improve their reading
skills. Extrinsically motivated individuals are controlled
by social needs, demands, or rewards. In this context,
the family makes the most important social impact on
children's motivation to read (Hughes-Hassell and Lutz,
2006; Millard, 1997). Previous studies have provided
some evidence that parental involvement in reading
activities and parents’ beliefs about reading both
have a causal eect on children's reading motivation
and achievement and have correlation (Baker et al.,
1997; Baker, 2003; Senechal and Young, 2008). For
example, Capotosto et al. (2017) state that in their
study examining the eect of family support on the
reading skills, motivation and habits of third-graders,
students who receive family support make progress
in these aspects. Pavalache-Ilie and Ţirdia (2015), on
the other hand, reported that school performance
was significantly related to parental involvement
and intrinsic motivation in their study examining the
relationship between parent involvement, school
performance and intrinsic motivation of primary school
third and fourth-graders. The results of the present
study also show that parental involvement is related
to student motivation. The fact that reading activities
with parental participation increase students' reading
motivation confirms the findings in the literature.
However, in this paper, there was structured parental
involvement and support present through activities at
home with an experimental approach. In this respect,
the present study is believed to provide stronger
evidence in the literature. In addition, dierent results
have been reported from the studies conducted on
dierent age groups and grade levels in the literature.
For instance, Coleman and McNeese (2009) examined
the relationship between parent involvement, student
motivation and academic achievement and found a
positive relationship between student motivation and
academic achievement, and a negative relationship
between parent involvement and motivation. This
can be explained by the age and maturity level of
the students. Some students enter puberty at this age
and tend to be more and more independent. Children
may have wanted less involvement from their parents,
wanting to be less dependent on them. In this context,
it can be said that parental involvement can be more
eective in pre-school and primary school periods.
Improved Attitudes Towards Reading Through Parent-
Involved Reading Activities
The third research question of the study was whether
the dierence between the experimental and control
group students' reading attitude post-test scores was
statistically significant. For this purpose, an attitude
scale towards reading was applied to the students
before and after the experimental process. As a result
of the findings, it was seen that reading activities
with parental involvement had a positive eect on
students' reading attitudes.
The attitudes towards any object or situation
can be aected by the socialization process, the
520
March 2022, Volume 14, Issue 4, 509-524
characteristics of the group to which one is a member,
or the social class, in addition to the individual's genetic
factors, physiological conditions, personality, beliefs or
a direct experience (Baysal, 1981; Vaughan and Hogg,
2005). In short, your attitude towards something is a
plural conceptualization that changes in the context
of culture, environment, and purpose (Aizen and
Fishbein, 2005). Here comes the importance of family
because the family is the most important environment
in which the child's personality and emotions develop.
The results regarding the eect of parents on reading
habits and attitudes in the literature confirm the
findings of the present study. Özbay (2006) asserts that
the attitudes of family members are quite important in
reading education, and the family's attitudes towards
books at home and their activities to make the child
love reading positively aect the child's attitudes
towards reading. Kaldan Sabak (2007) aruges that the
environment in which the individual lives aect his or
her acquisition of a reading habit. Topçuoğlu Ünal and
Yiğit (2014) found that the family plays an important
role in the formation of a reading culture in children.
Durualp and Çiçekoğlu (2013) reported that parents'
reading books had positive eects on increasing
children's reading attitudes. In this context, it can
be said that the positive emotional and behavioral
tendency of the family towards reading activities
also aects the child's attitude positively. During the
experimental process of the present study, children
read together with their parents for eight weeks,
answered questions about the texts, and completed
various activities within parent-involved reading
activities. The parents provided direct support to the
children in the implementation of the activities. It can
be stated that reading comprehension activities in
which the parents participate and take responsibility
has the potential to create positive changes in
children's attitudes towards reading.
Suggestions
In this section, suggestions are oered taking into
account the results and limitations of the present
study:
• Within the scope of this study, the eects
of parent-involved reading activities on
students' reading comprehension skills,
reading motivation and attitudes towards
reading were tested, and positive results
were yielded. In further studies, researchers
can also develop parent-involved activities
for dierent courses and skills and examine
their impact at primary school level.
• In this study, the eects of parent-
involved reading activities on reading
comprehension skills, reading motivation
and attitudes towards reading are limited
to fourth graders and their families.
The impact of these activities can be
reconstructed for dierent grade levels and
examined with a larger sample.
• Teachers can plan activities to enable
parent-involved reading at home and
school and organize home visits, and
parents can be encouraged to take part in
committees such as school-parent unions.
• Within the scope of this study, training
was given to the parents to ensure their
participation and to inform them about the
nature of the reading activities. To enhance
parental involvement, similar educational
seminars can be organized for parents, and
they can be informed about how they can
support their children.
• This study is limited to an implementation
period of eight weeks. Through a
longitudinal study on this issue, eects can
be examined over a longer period.
• In this study, the reading activities with
parental involvement were to strengthen
family participation at home. Studies
can also be conducted to enable this
participation at school.
• Studies with comparative analyses can be
conducted to evaluate results from families
with dierent socioeconomic levels.
• In this study, the eect of reading activities
with parental involvement was analyzed
using an experimental design, and
employing a reading comprehension
achievement test, reading motivation
scale, reading attitude scale. Studies that
provide more detailed data on this subject
can be conducted using dierent methods
(e.g. action research) and scales.
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