Studying the
New Testament
Ray Van Neste
Dean, School of Theology and Missions
Union University
1
Studying
N T
RAY VAN NESTE
e goal of theological education is to know God, the true God of the
world, whom we must worship and serve. Indeed, this is the ultimate aim of
all of life (John 17:3; Jer 9:23–24). Constant attention to this goal by both
educators and learners can prevent the deadening of theological education.
We’ve all seen the student, once passionate about Jesus and evangelism,
engaging in a type of theological study that dampens his zeal to an extent
that he is only interested in the ner points of theology. However, there is
a course of study that, if properly imbibed, will lead to a owering of the
student’s love for God. e centerpiece of this curriculum must be the full-
est revelation of God, God’s disclosure of himself that comes in the New
Testament (NT).
Systematic theology contemplates the character and perfection of the
God we love, and ethics explores the way he calls us to live. Church history
tells us the story of our brothers and sisters as they have sought to follow
God and God’s gracious interaction with them. e Old Testament shows
God creating for himself a people through whom he will reveal his majesty
and glory as well as his gracious covenant-keeping love. Finally, in the NT,
we see the ultimate unveiling of God in the person of Jesus Christ, the
incarnate Son of God. is is the crescendo of revelation, the climax of
God’s gracious manifestation. e love of God, wondrously displayed in
the OT, reaches its zenith at the crucixion of Jesus, such that the apostle
John can say, “God’s love was revealed among us in this way: God sent
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his one and only Son into the world so that we might live through him”
(1John 4:9).
e NT displays this Jesus whom we love, the One for whom we rst
decided to pursue theological education. e NT is not merely the record
of human experiences of God or the best of humanity’s ideas about how to
relate to God. It is the culmination of the self-revelation of God, eyewitness
testimony to the life and work of Christ, and the deposit of the apostles’
teaching. rough the NT, we see how the OT pointed to Christ and how
we must now live in light of Christ. As such, it deserves our devotion and
careful study. e NT is central to theological education, and no eort
would be too great, no cost too high, to gain understanding of such a book.
As A. T. Robertson atly stated, NT study is of the highest importance
because “the NT is the fountainhead, the sourcebook of Christianity.”
1
is is not to say that the NT is all that is important or necessary. As
will be discussed below, we cannot separate the NT from the OT. ey are
integrally related, and each is needed to understand the other as together
they form one coherent message as Christian Scripture. However, there
is an element of discontinuity as well. As the Epistle to the Hebrews tells
us, in the past God spoke to us by the prophets, but “in these last days,
he has spoken to us by his Son” (1:2). While the OT law possessed only
a shadow of the good things that were to come, the NT reveals their true
form (10:1).
In the study of the NT, we investigate ancient history, ancient litera-
ture, and Christian theology. We devote attention to ancient Near Eastern
culture. Political history and geography provide the context for two-thou-
sand-year-old Gospels and Letters. Meanwhile, the documents themselves
are some of the most important sources for understanding the NT period.
e NT has been justiably reckoned the most signicant literary corpus
in the history of Western civilization, if not the world. ough this may
sound like hyperbole, it is not. e Bible, the OT and the NT, is the found-
ing document of Christianity and the most decisive shaper of Western civi-
lization and the world. Even from a merely historical perspective, we are
studying some of the most signicant literature ever produced.
1. New Testament Interpretation, Notes on Lectures of Dr. A. T. Robertson, taken and neostyled by W.E.
Davidson, 2nd ed. (New York: Revell,1916), 19.
3
What Is the NT?
e Continuation of the OT
e NT presents itself as the continuation and fulllment of the OT. It is
impossible to understand the NT properly without reading it in conjunc-
tion with the OT. e NT writings quote the OT and allude to it exten-
sively. In the four Gospels, Jesus expounds the OT, showing he is the One
to whom the OT pointed. e apostles followed this example. e NT
assumes a number of key concepts from the OT such as the identity of
God, the Messiah, sin, and atonement. As Donald Hagner has stated, “Of
all that could be mentioned as important for the understanding of the NT
. . . nothing supersedes the Scriptures of the OT.”
2
us, the theological
and interpretive exercise fails from the outset if we ignore or isolate the
OT. eological education must always be rooted in a biblical exposition,
which keeps both testaments together. Any methodology that claims to
produce understanding of the NT but does not focus on knowing the OT
intimately is false and misguided from its beginning. As Dennis Kinlaw
says, “One of the reasons the New Testament does not live for us is because
we do not really know the Old Testament the way we should.”
3
In theological education we have separate classes for OT and NT
simply to allow us to focus on details, but this curricular separation must
not translate into a partition in our thinking, theologizing, or preaching.
Teachers of each testament should be integrating their subject matter with
the entire enterprise of theological and spiritual formation (since theologi-
cal education is a means to spiritual formation).
e Word of God
e NT, like the OT, presents itself as the Word of God. We pursue theo-
logical education because we believe this claim to be true. We must keep
this truth clearly in focus as we pursue our studies. It is possible to get lost
in the details. e copious amount of available (and still compiling) infor-
mation can be dizzying, such that NT studies can become drudgery. Or we
can become intoxicated with our new knowledge and thus become pued
2. Donald Hagner, e New Testament: A Historical and eological Introduction (Grand Rapids:
Baker Academic, 2012), 26.
3. Dennis Kinlaw and John Oswalt, Lectures in Old Testament eology (Anderson, IN: Francis
Asbury Press, 2010), 17.
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up. Either response shows that we have lost sight of what we are dealing
with in the NT. We can maintain a proper vision in two ways. First, if we
continually remind ourselves that we are digging deeply into God’s self-
revelation of his gracious purposes in redeeming sinful people like us, then it
will not be drudgery. Second, if we truly comprehend and meditate on the
message of the NT (God’s holiness, our sin, and his gracious work to rescue
us despite ourselves), we will nd that pride can hardly thrive in that context.
As a dear, aged professor once said to me, “Now, sir, you show me a man who
is proud, and I will show you a man who has yet to understand the cross!”
As we approach the NT, whether as a student or a professor, we must
come eagerly anticipating an encounter with God. We must think hard about
all the data—attend to the Greek syntax, historical background, genre, and
literary context—to the end of hearing more clearly the voice of the God
who has loved us with an everlasting love. Biblical interpretation can only
be done well as a lover’s pursuit. In this way the rigor and toil of theological
education will seem light, as did the seven years to Jacob as he worked for
Rachel (Gen 29:20). Only those who seek God in faith study the NT aright.
ose who hunger and thirst for God in this pursuit will be lled.
A Word for the Church
Any serious historical and literary interpretation of a text must take into
account its intended audience. Even a casual examination of the NT reveals
that it was written to and for the church. is is not to deny its evangelistic
purpose, but by and large the NT is addressed to the church. is should
shape our study in various ways. First, if we are not deeply involved in the
life of a local church, we will not be able to grasp fully the burden and
concern of the NT. is is true for everyone, but it is particularly true for
one involved in theological education and preparation for ministry. I tell
my students that if they are not involved in the community life and gospel
work of a local congregation, they are wasting their time in theological
study and fooling themselves as to what they are about. e famous dictum
of Hillary of Poitiers, the fourth century bishop, rings true: “ose who are
situated outside the church are not able to acquire any understanding of
the divine discourse.”
4
4. Cited in Mark Gignilliat, A Brief History of Old Testament Criticism: From Benedict Spinoza to
Brevard Childs (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 26.
5
Second, if we interpret the NT correctly, we must always be asking
what the text means not just for an individual but also for the church. Of
course we will pursue many technical details which will not themselves be
suitable for a prominent point in a sermon or lesson, but all of these details
should help us understand what God is saying to the church.
5
Howard
Marshall, who was described as the “dean of New Testament evangelical
interpretation,” provides us an example. While initiating and editing a
leading series of commentaries on the Greek text and producing a bevy of
standard technical works, he was rooted in the life of his small, local Meth-
odist congregation where many of the members did not know he was a
world-renowned scholar. ey simply knew him as “Howard,” who taught
the young boys’ class, played the church organ, and helped train lay preach-
ers. His advice to theological students is pertinent: “I think it is important
to be in a good Christian fellowship to have support from it and to be
occupied in Christian work of one kind or another, and if possible to try
and relate your studies to your practical Christian work.”
6
Lastly, Paul makes clear that we need the help of the Holy Spirit to
understand spiritual things, including the message of the Scriptures (1 Cor
2:14). erefore, we must be converted and indwelt by the Holy Spirit
before we can fully understand the NT. As Alistair Wilson has stated, “e
fundamental character of the NT as the breathed-out (2Tim 3:16) utter-
ance of the only God and Father of the Lord Jesus Christ demands that
true interpretation of the NT can be achieved only by those who have been
brought into a restored relationship with the Father and are equipped by
the Holy Spirit of God (1 Cor 2:6–16; Rom 8:5–9).”
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is is crucial as
we seek to read sympathetically, entering the situation of the writers. J. I.
Packer arms this, writing, “e supreme requirement for understanding
a biblical book—or indeed any other human document—is sympathy with
its subject matter, and a mind and heart that can spontaneously enter into
the author’s outlook. But the capacity to put oneself in the shoes of Isaiah,
5. In my own experience, the best biblical scholars I have known have been devoted churchmen.
6. Carl Trueman, “Interview with Professor Howard Marshall,” em 26, no. 1 (Autumn 2000): 49.
7. A. Wilson, “Beginning to Study the New Testament,” in Encountering God’s Word (Downers
Grove: IVP, 2003), 71. Note also Donald Hagner’s comment: “Believers are the implied readers of the
NT texts, and therefore believers are in the best place to make sense of the NT texts” (Hagner, e New
Testament: A Historical and eological Introduction, 10).
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or Paul or John and see with his eyes and feel with his heart is the gift, not
of academic training, but of the Holy Ghost though the new birth.”
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erefore, in all our eorts to understand Scripture, we ought to start
with prayer to the Author of those Scriptures, asking for his illumination
and guidance. And, since God will not answer requests to exalt ourselves
(Jas 4:3,6–7), we must not pray and study to lift ourselves up but rather
that God might be gloried as we grow in our knowledge of him, serving
him and his church.
Unied Reading
In light of what we have just said about the nature of the NT, we should
expect to interpret the NT, and the entire Bible, as a unied, coherent
whole. However, modern studies have tended toward reading biblical texts
in isolation from one another with an increasing assumption of discrepancy
between texts. Such divergence seems to be a presupposition for many today.
us we have Paul’s ideas, which may be signicantly dierent from John’s,
which may contradict Peter’s or James’s. is was not the way the church
read the Bible through the rst seventeen or so centuries of its history. e
Bible was seen as a unied whole, so its interpretation required the coor-
dination and theological integration of its various books.
9
e dierence
is rooted in what one thinks of the character of Scripture. If it is merely a
human book written across centuries, then one would likely assume there
will be large dierences. If it is a divinely inspired book for God’s people,
one is likely to assume a high level of consistency and coherence as did most
of the patristic, medieval, and Reformation era interpreters.
Evangelical convictions should lead us to studying the Bible, including
the NT, in a unied way, expecting the Bible to help us interpret the Bible
as we read each individual text in light of the whole of Scripture. is does
not mean we atten out the distinctive characteristics of each book. Gospel
writers have distinct emphases, and Paul uses dierent language than John.
It is valuable for us to notice this. In the end, however, they are testifying to
the same truth of God in Christ reconciling the world to himself. We have
the benet of a variegated witness to a central reality.
8. J. I. Packer, God Has Spoken, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994), 73–74.
9. Borrowing language from Christopher Seitz, Colossians (Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2014), 24.
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Major Aspects of the Study of the New Testament
e various aspects of NT study can be grouped into ve main catego-
ries: (1) textual criticism; (2) archaeological, historical, and cultural back-
ground; (3) study of the composition of the text; (4) exegesis; and (5) NT
theology.
10
ese are listed in terms of their logical progression in the actual
practice of NT study, but one typically moves back and forth among these
realms.
e Establishment of the Text: Textual Criticism
Before we can study the NT, we must establish the text itself. e NT
was not handed down to us in a complete, single volume containing the
original documents written by the apostles. Indeed, we do not have the
originals of any of the NT documents (referred to as autographs). What we
have is a multitude of manuscript copies from a wide range of locations
and times. Some manuscripts are fragments, some have entire letters or
books, and some have more than one letter. We also have early translations
and quotations in the writings of early church fathers. Bruce Metzger has
stated that the NT quotations in the writings of the church fathers are so
extensive that we could reconstruct “practically the entire New Testament”
from them!
11
We have an amazing wealth of manuscript copies of the NT. ese
include papyri (the earliest and rarest because they are more fragile), majus-
cules (so-called because they are written in all capital letters), minuscules
(written in lower case), and lectionaries (collections of passages for assigned
readings for certain days). From these categories we have well over 5,700
manuscripts.
12
No other ancient writing comes close to this level of textual
evidence.
Among all these manuscripts, however, there are discrepancies in
certain readings—some more and some less signicant. In order to discern
what the original document said, these dierences need to be analyzed.
10. A later chapter treats NT theology, so that will not be discussed in this chapter.
11. Bruce Metzger, e Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968), 86.
12. Daniel Wallace, “Laying a Foundation: New Testament Textual Criticism,” in Interpreting the
New Testament Text: Introduction to the Art and Science of Exegesis, ed. Darrell Bock and Buist Fanning
(Wheaton: Crossway, 2006), 39, mentions 5,745 manuscripts. More have been discovered since.
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is analysis is called textual criticism because scholars critically examine
these manuscripts in order to discern which readings are original.
13
ere are a large number of discrepancies among the thousands of
manuscripts we have. Most, however, are insignicant for the meaning of
the text. One example of this sort is variations in spelling. One manuscript
might have the name John spelled Iōannēs and another with the spelling
Iōanēs. is is a discrepancy, a variant reading, but it in no way aects the
meaning of the text. ere are also instances where the order of words
is slightly dierent. While the word order may provide some nuance of
meaning, the basic meaning is still clear. In a smaller percentage of cases,
the variant reading does have an impact on the meaning of the text. Here
the importance of textual criticism is seen (e.g., “we have” or “let us have”
in Romans 1). e dierence is between an omicron and an omega, which
were probably pronounced the same in the rst century as they are in later
Greek.
14
e work of textual criticism is, therefore, important, and any seri-
ous interpreter of the NT must be aware of this work. However, we must
also note that the reality of variant readings in the manuscripts need not
undermine our condence in the Scripture. e large number of manu-
scripts provides a large sample for comparison, allowing us to make good
decisions between the variants. Furthermore, we have old copies as well,
dating back close to the time of the writing. As noted previously, no other
ancient writing compares with the NT in terms of the number of manu-
script copies available and their early date. For example, we have only 643
copies of Homer’s Illiad, ten copies of Julius Caesar’s Gallic War, seven
copies of Plato’s writings, and one copy of Beowulf.
15
For many of the other
ancient works, the oldest copies we have date from thousands of years after
the original. Scholars consider these other ancient works reliable, yet the
NT has signicantly more textual attestation. e stability of the NT text
13. ere is an ongoing debate among scholars about terminology at this point, whether we should
refer to “original” or “earliest” readings. While it is a signicant topic, this is not the place to pursue it
further. For a recent brief summary of the discussion, see Charles Hill and Michael Kruger, “Introduc-
tion: In Search of the Earliest Text of the New Testament,” in e Earliest Text of the New Testament, ed.
Charles Hill and Michael Kruger (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 3–5.
14. Examples drawn from Daniel Wallace, “Laying a Foundation: New Testament Textual Criti-
cism,” in Interpreting the New Testament Text: Introduction to the Art and Science of Exegesis, ed. Darrell
Bock and Buist Fanning (Wheaton: Crossway, 2006), 37.
15. Andreas Köstenberger, Scott Kellum, and Charles Quarles, e Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown:
An Introduction to the New Testament (Nashville: B&H Academic, 2009), 34.
9
can be seen in the fact that while numerous more manuscripts have been
discovered over the last several decades, the decisions on variant readings
have changed little.
16
e World Around the Text: Historical and Cultural Background
17
e NT was written in a specic historical and cultural setting, which is
dierent from our own. is shapes the authors’ styles and governs the
sorts of things to which they allude or use for illustration. NT authors
write in terms that were common and widely recognized by their readers
but which at times are not so common today. ey can assume their readers
are well aware of the political, economic, and social realities they shared but
which are alien to us. e better we understand the historical and cultural
setting of the NT, the better we will understand its message; and we will be
protected from numerous errors.
I often illustrate this to students by arguing from lesser to greater. Since
I live and teach in the United States, I ask students what other culture is
the most similar to ours. Certainly that is British culture with our shared
language and signicant shared history. Yet, as any American who has lived
in Britain (and presumably the reverse) knows, the potential for misunder-
standing between these two cultures is signicant. Early in my family’s time
living in Scotland, we had to take one of our small children to the doctor.
When we told family and friends we had taken him to the surgery, they
were alarmed since to American ears that suggested the need for an opera-
tion. In Scotland it simply meant we went to the doctor’s oce. Humorous
examples just from my family’s experience abound. If there is this much
potential for confusion between two cultures, which share so much in
common, how much more potential for confusion is there between our
setting and that of the NT, which is distant from us in time, language, and
other cultural features?
is is not to say that we cannot understand the Bible at all unless
we have advanced degrees in the history and culture of the rst century.
16. Charles Hill and Michael Kruger, “Introduction: In Search of the Earliest Text of the New Testa-
ment,” in e Earliest Text of the New Testament, ed. Charles Hill and Michael Kruger (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2012), 5–6.
17. e most extensive recent coverage of this sort of material in one volume is Joel B. Green and
Lee M. McDonald, e World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts (Grand
Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013).
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Rather, our understanding will be enhanced and enriched, and we will be
guarded against misunderstandings of various sorts.
e information we have on the historical and cultural background
of the NT comes either from material that was intentionally preserved or
from what has been discovered by archaeologists. Archaeology has been
of great service to NT studies by uncovering all sorts of useful informa-
tion ranging from biblical manuscripts (previously discussed), other texts,
inscriptions, coins, and artifacts of daily life. Many of the items discussed
below are available to us because of the work of archaeologists. e primary
value of archaeology has been illuminating daily life in biblical times, help-
ing us “see” the world of the NT and better understand what was going on
in that time. Due to the work of archaeology, we have examples of homes,
rich and poor, from Palestine and elsewhere around the Mediterranean and
can reconstruct many activities of daily life.
In addition, archaeology has also given strong evidence of the histori-
cal reliability of the NT. “Finds [of archaeology] inevitably keep return-
ing biblical studies to the realm of history and historical geography.”
18
For
example, John’s Gospel has been shown to demonstrate an accurate aware-
ness of the geography of Palestine, and discovered inscriptions have shown
that Luke, in Acts, used the accurate terms for the various governmental
leaders he mentioned.
Historical Events
Any specic time in history is shaped by the forces and events that preceded
it, and the era of the NT is no dierent. erefore, awareness of this histori-
cal background will be helpful in interpreting the NT. Much happened
between the close of the OT and the opening of the NT, and these events
and their eects are assumed by NT writers. For example, someone who
has just completed reading the OT will nd new concepts in the NT, which
are introduced without explanation. Jesus and Paul visit synagogues, local
Jewish assemblies, but these were not mentioned in the OT. Who are these
groups called Pharisees and Sadducees? All of these can be explained by
the history that preceded the NT era. During the exile from Judea, with
the temple destroyed, the Jews had no place to gather for worship. ey
could not perform the prescribed sacrices, but they gathered in their
18. John McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008), 18.
11
communities to study the law. ese gatherings became synagogues, and
the practice of establishing synagogues continued after they returned from
exile so that by the time of the NT there were synagogues throughout the
Mediterranean world. e movements that became known as Pharisees
and Sadducees began during the time in which the Jews were ruled by
the remnants of Alexander the Great’s empire. Antiochus IV forced Greek
culture on the Jews with the threat of torture and death. Some groups
were more willing to compromise (forerunners of the Sadducees) and some
resisted compromise and called for purity (forerunners of the Pharisees).
Furthermore, this persecution led to a revolt led by the Hasmonean family,
who were referred to as the Maccabees, which eventually led to Jewish inde-
pendence. e fact that the Jews had defeated a superior power to achieve
independence in 164 BC and then lost that independence after defeat by
the Romans in 63 BC no doubt helped fuel desires among many Jews to
throw o the Romans during the NT era.
A basic awareness of the geography of the NT world is also quite help-
ful. e accounts of both Jesus and Paul are lled with travel, and it is
helpful to know where they are going and the dierent terrains and political
boundaries which are being crossed. Weather patterns also aect travel.
In Acts Paul regularly stops traveling and spends the winter in a specic
location. is is because sea travel largely shut down in the winter due to
hazardous conditions. With this in mind, Paul’s urging Timothy to “come
before winter” (2 Tim 4:21) makes even more sense.
Texts
A wealth of texts have been preserved or discovered that illuminate various
aspects of NT study. Large numbers of papyri letters have been discov-
ered that illuminate daily life signicantly. ese are not texts intended for
publication but everyday letters, notices, and inventories. As such they give
us a glimpse into the lives of ordinary people. ese documents also have
furthered our knowledge of the Greek language as common people used it.
e wide range of Greco-Roman literature that has been preserved
bears on NT study by giving us access to ideas and practices that were
common in the era. Cicero died about four decades before the birth of
Christ, but his discussions about letter writing help us understand Paul’s
letter writing. Ancient letters, treatises, speeches, and books give us insight
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into the life of slaves, popular religious ideas, and ideas about marriage
for example. Sometimes specic cities or regions are described. For exam-
ple, Polybius (second century BC) wrote that it was almost “impossible to
nd...personal conduct more treacherous or public policy more unjust
than in Crete” (Histories 6.47 [Paton, LCL]). Cicero also stated, “Moral
principles are so divergent that the Cretans...consider highway robbery
honorable” (De Republica 3.9.15 [Keyes, LCL]). is reputation over a
couple of centuries helps us understand the situation of the letter to Titus,
who was ministering on Crete when Paul wrote him warning of the people’s
beastly behavior and urging him to teach the people the ethical implica-
tions of the gospel.
Even closer to the thought world of most of the NT writers is the
Jewish literature that has survived.
19
Josephus, a Jewish historian, tells us
much about the everyday life of rst-century Jews and gives accounts of
many key events including the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. Philo
was a Jewish philosopher well acquainted with Greek thought. His expo-
sitions of the OT give us an example of how at least some Jews thought in
the rst century. We can see how Philo’s handling of the OT compares with
that of Paul, for example, or the author of Hebrews. e Dead Sea Scrolls
and rabbinic literature (including Midrash, Targums, and Talmudim) give
us examples of dierent religious expectations and approaches to the OT
that come from at least close to the time of the writing of the NT.
20
All
of this helps us understand some of the ideas that were in the air when
Jesus came teaching or when the apostles preached Jesus as the promised
Messiah. ey help us situate the story of the NT.
e History of the Text: Higher Criticism
Formal study of the NT also addresses the question of how the texts we
hold in our hands came to be in the form in which we have them. is is
an issue students often do not consider before entering formal theologi-
cal study, but it is an important topic. For example, how did we end up
19. Martin Hengel says it is certain “without qualication that Christianity grew entirely out of
Jewish soil.” (“Early Christianity as a Jewish-Messianic, Universalistic Movement,” in Conicts and
Challenges in Early Christianity, ed. D. Hagner [Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1999], 1).
20. For a helpful statement on the usefulness of rabbinic literature in NT interpretation and caution
about dating of that literature, see J. Neusner, “Rabbinic Literature: Mishnah and Tosefta,” in Dictio-
nary of New Testament Background: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship, ed. Craig Evans
and Stanley Porter (Downers Grove: IVP, 2000), 896–97.
13
with four Gospels, and how do we account for their striking similarities
in certain places and dissimilarities in others? Who wrote the NT docu-
ments which do not have a stated author, and can we trust the claims of
authorship that are present? Are certain books actually edited together from
several dierent sources?
Some of these questions have been important from the early days of
the church when its leaders examined writings to discern whether they
were written by apostles and should thus be accepted as authoritative. e
Enlightenment of the nineteenth century, however, elevated skepticism to
a virtue and shaped the discussion of authorship in a new way. Until the
nineteenth century the church basically accepted the stated authorship of
NT books (the Epistle to the Hebrews, which does not claim an author, is
a separate case). J. E. C. Schmidt and Friedrich Schleiermacher were the
rst to dispute the authorship of a NT letter, disputing Pauline authorship
of 1 Timothy.
21
Early critics of Schleiermacher warned that this skepticism
would spread to other NT books and thus erode the entire theological
project concerning the Bible. e skeptics derided this as fear mongering,
but this prophecy has been fullled. In modern NT studies the authorship
of six of the thirteen letters attributed to Paul is widely disputed, and the
apostolic authorship of the Gospels and several other epistles is called into
question. is is signicant for NT study since, as Donald Guthrie stated,
“It is noticeable that challenges to traditional ascriptions of scholarship
went hand in hand with rejection of authority.”
22
F. C. Baur furthered this skeptical viewpoint in the nineteenth century
when he argued the NT itself was made up of books that were written
against one another. ough Baur’s basic thesis has largely been discred-
ited, his acidic inuence is still evident in the methodology of NT scholars
who assume conicts and contradictions between biblical books and even
within books. is approach to scholarship brings to mind a scientist who
21. Apparently J. E. C. Schmidt was rst in challenging 1 Tim in his Historical-Critical Introduction
to the New Testament in 1804/5. But it was Schleiermacher’s Über den sogenannten ersten Brief des Paulos
an den Timotheos. Ein kritisches Sendschreibung an J. C. Gass (reprinted in Schleiermacher’s Sämmtichle
Werke, vol. 1–2, pp. 221–320) which really stirred up the conversation in 1807.
22. Donald Guthrie, “Questions of Introduction,” in New Testament Interpretation: Essays on Prin-
ciples and Methods, ed. I. H. Marshall (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), 108. For further reection
on the tendency of such approaches to erode biblical authority, see Ray Van Neste, “Coherence and
Authorship in 1 Timothy,” Global Journal of Classic eology 12, no. 3 (December 2015), accessed
January 14, 2017, http://www.globaljournalct.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Van-Neste-Vol-12-
No-3-Coherence-and-Authorship-of-1-Timothy.pdf.
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kills an animal, dissects its parts for a detailed study, and then declares
he nds no life there. Or the scientist rebuilds the dissected animal in a
way he sees t, diverging from the condition in which he found it, and
then declares that his completed reconstruction is the original condition
of the animal. It is not putting too ne a point on it to say that this brand
of scholarship remakes the NT in its own image. Too often biblical texts
are criticized for not saying what we, as enlightened moderns, would have
said.
23
Earle Ellis’s assessment is worth quoting: “In Tübingen today there is
properly a ‘Ferdinand Christian Baur Street’ to commemorate a great gure
of the city’s past. As is appropriate, it is a branch o ‘Philosophers Way.’
Equally appropriate, I believe, it is a Sackgasse, a blind alley. Baur produced
a construct of early Christianity that was too articial and exegetically too
poorly grounded to serve as a viable historical representation.”
24
Other questions about the history of the text have been more useful.
For example, redaction criticism focuses on dierences between the
Gospels, looking for evidence of the Gospel writers’ interests and empha-
ses. e value of such study varies, but it has usefully made the point that
the Gospel writers were not mere recorders of events but were actually
theologians. Canonical interpretation has pushed back against much of the
concern with the history of the text, arguing instead that our focus should
be on the text as we have it.
e Message in the Text: Exegesis
After the preparatory work we have just described, and in light of it, we
must then interpret the text. We want to discern what the original inten-
tion of the text is so that we might believe it and obey it. Because we want
to believe and obey what God has said, and not just whatever we can read
into the text (eisegesis), exegesis must be done carefully.
23. Perhaps an anecdote would be helpful here. I once listened to a paper given by a systematic theo-
logian who argued that Paul intended to say one thing in Ephesians 5 but that his theological reasoning
got away from him, leading to a text which has left most of us over the ages thinking Paul was arguing
something totally dierent. After the paper Howard Marshall spoke up declaring that he now had a
new question for examinations: “Tell us how Paul should have written Ephesians in order to say what
we know he meant to have said.”
24. E. Earle Ellis, e Making of the New Testament Documents (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 445. For a
fascinating critique of the skeptical approach from a literary perspective, see Anthony Esolen, “Pauline
Scholar, Meet Homeric Scholar: How Textual Analysis Misses Authorial Genius and Literary Inspira-
tion,” Touchstone 26, no. 4 (July/August 2013): 22–26.
15
Historical-grammatical exegesis is the term often used for the approach
that seeks to allow the biblical text to speak on its own terms. Historical
refers to the eort to understand the author’s meaning in his historical
and literary context. We must understand what the text originally meant,
and then we can ask how that meaning applies to various situations today.
is approach is also grammatical in that we seek to understand the text
according to the natural, linguistic sense of the words. We are not seeking
to uncover secret or hidden meanings. Additionally, our approach can be
described as theological since, as was argued above, we approach the text as
the Word of God and anticipate a coherent message within the Bible.
e rst step in any interpretation is to read the text carefully and
closely. It is of immense help to the interpreter of the NT to be able to read
the NT in the language in which it was originally written, Greek (see chap-
ter 9). e author’s specic word choices and broader structural elements
that mark the ow of thought can be seen more readily in Greek. While
we are blessed with many good English translations, the ability to read the
NT in Greek is a serious advantage and is thus well worth pursuing in a
theological education.
Also, to read a text properly, we must be aware of what sort of text
it is. Dierent kinds of texts (genres) follow dierent patterns or rules.
We know this intuitively in everyday life so that we don’t puzzle over a
train schedule or team roster looking for the plot or criticize it for lacking
character development. We know to expect disparate topics and varying
styles in science textbooks and mystery novels. When we turn to the NT,
then, we need to be aware that there are several literary genres within it,
and we must be mindful of them as we read. Basically in the NT we have
three main genres: historical writing (Gospels and Acts), letters (Paul and
the General Epistles), and apocalyptic (Revelation). e rst two of these
are generally familiar to us today. e Gospels and Acts narrate key events
in a way broadly similar to historical writing we might encounter today,
with some dissimilarities like the absence of a reference system for noting
sources. We might note that the Gospels, as well as Acts, relate their stories
in order to make a certain point, but this is usually true of any historical
writing today as well.
Paul’s letters begin with his name rather than the name of the recipient,
but broadly speaking we understand that he is communicating his ideas to
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a person or group at a distance. He will typically use a health wish near the
beginning of his letters that is common today as well (“I hope you’re doing
well!”). We know that letters (or even e-mails) can vary in length and can
vary in style from casual to more instructive, and this was true of ancient
letters as well. Paul’s letters are more along the lines of instructing.
e NT genre least familiar to us is apocalyptic. is was a common
genre in the ancient world, but it disappeared over time such that we do
not expect to nd an “apocalyptic” section in our local bookstores today.
Since we have some other apocalyptic writings from the ancient world,
we can discern some of the common features, such as an extensive use of
symbolism and a focus on God’s powerful intervention into the world.
While the book of Revelation continues to present many challenges for the
interpreter, an awareness of the apocalyptic genre helps clarify many things.
Within the genres are other aspects of study that can help us understand
the structure and ow of thought in NT writings. For example, rhetorical
and literary analysis help illuminate the ways ancient authors ordered their
writings. Since these writings would be heard rather than read by most
people, the use of certain words and the order or repetition of words could
be helpful in comprehending the ow of thought and points of emphasis.
For example, ancient writers would sometimes open and close a paragraph
with the same ideas or words to mark the unit of thought.
A close reading of a text will necessitate placing that specic text within
its broader literary context. A paragraph in a letter of Paul needs to be
seen in light of what precedes and what follows it. Where does this specic
paragraph t in the overall argument of his letter? We must consider how
a Gospel account is impacted by the stories around it. For example, if
you are studying the text where Jesus is accused of breaking the Sabbath
(Mark2:23–28), it is helpful to note that this is the second of three narra-
tives where Jesus disputed the way the Pharisees were interpreting the OT.
An obvious theme in these texts is Jesus’s demonstration of a proper under-
standing of OT law.
us, by close reading of the texts and their nuances within the literary,
historical, and cultural context, we will be helped to accurately interpret the
meaning of each text. Once understood, however, the text must be applied.
No biblical study is completed with the acquisition of new information.
Once again we must keep in mind the purpose of the Scriptures. God has
17
not given them to us for mere historical inquiry but that we might know
and obey him. us, we must apply the biblical truths and believe and obey
what we have discovered.
Conclusion
NT studies done well is a rigorous, thrilling enterprise in pursuit of the
knowledge of God and the service of his people. We cannot achieve theo-
logical education or hope for a healthy church without a deep awareness of
the NT, so this task is vital. We must think clearly and diligently, making
use of all the available tools and being aware of the current issues. We must
approach the text with the right spirit as well if we want to encounter God
since we know God resists the proud but gives grace to the humble (1 Pet
5:5). e prophet Isaiah also tells us that God will attend to the one who
is humble, submissive in spirit, and trembles at his word (Isa 66:1–2). Let
us be such people.
Questions for Further Reection
1. How should the goal of knowing God shape your approach to biblical
study? Is your approach to theological education currently shaped by
this goal?
2. Are you involved signicantly in the life of a specic local church? Do
you believe this will have an impact on your study of the NT? How
can you grow in your investment in the life of fellow believers and
integrating this into your biblical studies?
3. How important is an awareness of the OT for the study of the NT?
4. How valuable are background studies for the interpretation of the NT?
What can you do to increase your awareness of the history and culture
of the Greco-Roman world?
5. Do you think it is important to approach the NT with the expectation
that its various books agree with and help interpret one another?
Sources for Further Study
Arnold, Clinton E., ed. Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commen-
tary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002.
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Black, David A., and David S. Dockery, ed. Interpreting the New Testament:
Essays on Methods and Issues. Nashville: B&H, 2001.
Bockmuehl, Markus. Seeing the Word: Refocusing New Testament Study.
Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006.
Bird, Michael F. Introducing Paul: e Man, His Mission and His Message.
Downers Grove: IVP, 2008.
Bruce, F. F. e New Testament Documents: Are ey Reliable? 6th ed. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981.
Comfort, Philip W. Encountering the Manuscripts: Introduction to New
Testament Paleography and Textual Criticism. Nashville: B&H Academic,
2005.
Evans, Craig, and Stanley Porter, ed. Dictionary of New Testament Back-
ground: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship. Downers
Grove: IVP, 2000.
Fee, Gordon D. New Testament Exegesis: A Handbook for Students and
Pastors. 3rd ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002.
Green, Joel B., and Lee M. McDonald. e World of the New Testament:
Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic,
2013.
Keener, Craig S. e IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament.
2nd ed. Downers Grove: IVP, 2014.
McRay, John. Archaeology and the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 1991.
Seitz, Christopher. e Character of Christian Scripture: e Signicance of a
Two-Testament Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2011.
Originally published as “Introduction to the New Testament,” in eology, Church, and
Ministry: A Handbook for eological Education, ed. David S. Dockery (B&H, 2017)
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